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Bible as the divinely inspired book which con- 1229, forbade laymen to read the Bible in the tains the tenets of Christian belief and of Chris- vernacular language; and, in modern times, the tian ethics. The Bible is divided into two parts, efforts of the Bible societies have been repeatedly called the Old and the New Testament. The condemned by the popes. In Protestant counformer is regarded as holy writ, not only by tries, the reading of the Bible has been a very Christians, but also by the Jews. There is not prominent agent in the development of public an entire agreement in regard to the number of education. The Bible having become, through books constituting the Old Testament. Several Luther and other Reformers of the sixteenth books are regarded by the Catholic Church as century, the principal book for the church and the belonging to, and partaking of, the inspired home-circle, the instruction of children in this character of the Scriptures, which Protestants book continued for a long time to be the chief generally regard as a class of works highly object of popular education. Children were venerable and useful, but not of divine origin. taught to read in order that they might be able The Catholic Church calls these books deutero- to peruse the Bible; and instruction in the dogcanonical, the Protestants apocryphal, or, collect-matic tenets of the Church, as well as instrucively, the Apocrypha. The New Testament is the tion in history, geography, and other branches, was secondary to the reading of the Scriptures. In process of time, the relation of Bible reading to other branches of education became greatly modified; but, wherever public schools still have a distinctively Protestant character, the reading of the Bible is retained as a special branch of instruction. Protestant educators differ in regard to the question, whether it is preferable to place the entire Bible, or only editions specially abridged for the use of children (schoolmain-bibles), into the hands of the pupils. Both views have found able advocates; but the use of the entire Bible has thus far been favored by the legislation of most of the Protestant states of Europe. On the other hand, educators have generally agreed in recommending to teachers not to require the entire Bible to be read consecutively by the pupils; but to leave out those portions which are either inappropriate or too difficult for children.

same in the Catholic Church as in Protestant churches; but one Christian sect, the Abyssinian Church, recognizes, in addition to the books accepted by both Catholics and Protestants, a number of others as a part of the New Testa

ment.

Catholics and Protestants, though accepting the same books as the sources of divine truth, differ widely in the interpretation of their contents. Most of the biblical Protestants regard the Bible as the only source of Christian faith, and tain that, whatever differences of opinion may exist in regard to some particular doctrines, the great fundamental truths of Christianity are set forth in it so clearly, as to supersede fully the need of any other standard of faith. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, holds that the Bible was not given by God to man to be the only guide for the formation of his religious belief, but that, for that purpose, an infallible church was instituted, whose office it is to explain to the faithful the true meaning of the Bible.

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The Catholic Church is opposed to the introduction of the Bible without note or comment into schools, and substitutes for it the use of biblical histories and selections from the Bible. Recent Catholic works on education express the wish, that to the reading of suitable selections from the Bible greater prominence should be given than has heretofore been the case. ROLFUS & PFISTER, Real-Encyclopädie des Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens nach katholischen Principien, art. Bibel.

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From the different position which these two large denominations of Christians assume in regard to the Bible, it follows that they must teach a different way of using it. Thus, the Protestant churches consider it a matter of prime importance that every child should become acquainted with the Bible as the only infallible source of the pure word of God, and should learn, as soon as possible, to read and understand it; while the Bible Question. In the United States, the pubCatholic Church enjoins upon its members to lic schools are of an undenominational character, keep constantly in mind, in reading the Bible, being intended to receive children of all kinds of that only the infallible church possesses the key religious belief or unbelief. The question whether to its true meaning. The Protestant churches the reading of the Bible is to be retained in earnestly desire that the Bible should be placed in the public schools, has been and still is the subthe hands of every Christian; and they have, ject of animated discussion and agitation. The therefore, founded in all Protestant countries decision of this question is mostly left to the Bible Societies, designed to carry out this object, local boards of education, which may prescribe, and thus have already fully succeeded in mak- allow, or forbid the reading of the Bible. The ing the Bible the most widely circulated book in legislation of several of the states of the Union prothe world. The Catholic Church prefers the use vides, however, that no ordinance shall be passed of annotated Bibles, or of selections from the by any local board of education forbidding the Bible, to that of the Scriptures without note and use of the Bible. The majority of the Protescomment. When, in the thirteenth century, the tant churches still favor the reading of the Albigenses translated the Bible into their ver- Bible, though some of the most prominent clernacular languages, and referred their members to gymen have, of late, taken the ground that it the text of the Bible as contradicting the teach- would be unjust to request the children of Cathings of the church, the synod of Toulouse, inolics, Jews, or Non-Christians to take part in re

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ligious exercises to which their parents object. The Catholics and Jews, together with all the opponents of Christianity, generally demand the exclusion of the Bible from the schools. In the city of Cincinnati, a resolution by the board of education forbidding the reading of the Bible in the public schools, led, in 1869, to a legal contest which lasted four years. The superior court of Cincinnati, in 1870, decided against the board of education; but the supreme court of Ohio, in June 1873, reversed this judgment, and sustained the Cincinnati board of education. The school board of Chicago, in 1875, followed the example of Cincinnati, and forbade the reading of the Bible in the public schools. The question has also been vehemently agitated in the city of New York. See The Bible in the Public Schools; Arguments in the case of John D. Minor et al. versus the Board of Education of the City of Cincinnati et al. (Cincinnati, 1870); BOURNE, History of the Public School Society (N. Y., 1870); BOESE, Public Education in the City of New York (New York, 1869); T. II. HUXLEY, The School Boards, in Critiques and Addresses (London, and N. Y., 1873); GRIMKE, Use of the Bible in Common Education, in Amer. Annals of Education, vol. II. (1833), and The Bible as a Class Book, in Addresses (1831.)

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| works treating of this subject are generally entitled Introductions to the Bible; but a number of prominent theologians, rejecting this title as unsuitable, have treated of this subject under the heading, History of the Bible, or History of the Biblical Revelation. The most noted works of this class are: REUSS, Die Geschichte der heil. Schriften des N. T. (1853, 3d. edit. 1860); GUERICKE, Gesammtgeschichte des N. T. (Leip., 1854); HANEBERG, Versuch einer Geschichte der biblischen Offenbarung (Ratisbon, 1850).

BIRCH, as the name of the tree from which rods or twigs were formerly obtained for the infliction of corporal punishment, is often used as denoting this species of punishment; and the tree is frequently referred to in connection with school-keeping in the olden time. Shakespeare speaks of the "threatening twigs of birch"; and Shenstone, in The Schoolmistress, thus refers to the tree and its connection with school-management:

"And all in sight doth rise a birchen tree,
Which Learning near her little dome did stow,
Whilom a twig of small regard to see,
Though now so wide its waving branches flow,
And work the simple vassals mickle woe;
For not a wind might curl the leaves that blew,
But their limbs shudder'd, and their pulse beat low,
And as they look'd, they found their horror grew,
And shaped it into rods, and tingled at the view."

Doubtless, the toughness and elasticity of the twigs of the birch made them, before the introduction of the rattan, very useful implements for the purpose of school chastisement. (See CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.)

BLACKBOARD, an important piece of school apparatus now in use in all classes and grades of schools. It is generally constructed of wood, and is either attached to the wall of the room, or made to stand on an easel or revolve in a frame. Instead of blackboards, wall slates are now very frequently used, which, although much more expensive, are to be preferred on account of their durability. Sometimes, a portion of the wall itself is painted black, or covered with liquid slating, for this purpose; and at the pres

BIBLE HISTORY, or Biblical History. The connected history of the events narrated in the Bible is in many schools, both Protestant and Catholic, a part of the prescribed religious instruction. The method of teaching it greatly varies according to the age of the scholars. While children of the primary grade are taught only the most notable events of sacred history, in language adapted to their age, more advanced students are introduced into a full understanding of the Bible. In the compilation of text-books for this study, the authors have sometimes endeavored to give the whole narrative as much as possible in the words of the Bible, so as to make the book, in fact, an abridgment of the Bible. Others have deemed it better to pay less attention to retaining the words of the Bible, and to look, in the first place, to making the sub-ent ject as interesting, attractive, and intelligible to children as possible. Germany, where Biblical history (Biblische Geschichte) is generally adop ted as a part of the course of instruction in public schools of various grades, has a very extensive literature on the subject, including many manuals for teachers. Of scientific theology, Bible history forms an essential part, and is divided, like the Bible itself, into two sections, the history of the Old, and the history of the New Testament. It forms the connecting link between exegetical and historical theology, explaining, on the one hand, the contents of the Bible, and, on the other hand, treating and elucidating them the same as any other historical subject.

Bible history may also be viewed as a history of the volume containing the sacred writings of the Christian church. In this sense, it treats of the origin of the several books composing the Bible, and of their collection in the canon. The

time a kind of slated cloth is manufactured, which being attached to the wall answers every purpose of a blackboard.

The blackboard for the use of the teacher in giving his instruction or explanations to the whole school or class, should, for the sake of convenience, be placed near his desk and in front of the pupils. It is a great advantage also to have sufficient blackboard surface to admit of its use by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. This is especially desirable in higher instruction; but even in elementary district schools will be found to be quite desirable. Some of the pupils of a school can be employed in writing, drawing, or working out arithmetical problems on the blackboards, while others are engaged in oral recitation. There is scarcely any branch of instruction, or any kind of teaching, from the object lesson of the primary school to the lecture of the college professor, in which the use of the blackboard is not found to be almost indispen

BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY

sable. In teaching mathematics, it has an especial value. Scarcely a teacher, at the present day, in the most remote country school-house, would think of teaching arithmetic without a blackboard. But it is a most important aid also in teaching writing, drawing, geography, grammar, composition, history, and music; indeed, in every thing that admits of, or requires, an ocular demonstration addressed to a large number of pupils. Blackboard drawing can be made very instructive and interesting, particularly when crayons of different colors are used. In some schools this kind of drawing is carried to great perfection. Map-drawing, or rapid map-sketching, on the blackboard, is also very useful in teaching geography. Recitations on this subject may be conducted by this means. One of the pupils draws the outline of the state or country which is the subject of the lesson; another fills in the rivers; the next, the cities, etc., till the map is complete. As the study of maps depends so largely on the proper and attentive use of the eye, this method of blackboard instruction cannot fail to be quite effective.

Blackboard illustration will also prove very effective in the oral teaching, by a series of lessons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics, mental and moral philosophy, etc. By this means the divisions and subdivisions of the subject, with their exact logical relations, are presented to the mind through the eye, and a much stronger, clearer and more durable impression is thus made. For an excellent example of this kind of teaching, see MARK HOPKINS, An Outline Study of Man (New York, 1876). See also W. A. ALCOTT, Slate and Blackboard Exercises; WICKERSHAM, School Economy (Phila lelphia, 1868).

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so that they may be lifted out of the pauper class, and be enabled to earn a respectable livelihood.

There is a great diversity in the number of blind persons as compared with the population in different countries. Thus, according to the census of 1870, the total number of blind persons in the United States was 20,320, or 1 in 1900 of the population. In England and Wales, the proportion is reported as 1 to 1,037; in France, 1 to 938; in Greece and Turkey, 1 to 800; in Iceland, 1 to 300; and in Egypt, 1 to 200. In all countries, the number of males among the blind exceeds that of the females; and, in the United States, about one half of the blind are over 48 years of age. The proportion of those born blind to those who become so after birth is quite small.

The ancients appear to have had a certain degree of reverence for the blind, to some of whom they attributed the gift of prophecy; but it was not until the Middle Ages that any provision was made for their care and protection: and it was reserved for modern times to afford them the means of education. The Hospice des QuinzeVingls (Hospital for the 300), in Paris, founded by Louis IX. in 1260, is supposed to be the first public asylum established for the blind, the object of the French king being to provide a retreat for the soldiers of his army who had lost their eyes in Egypt, during the crusade which he led against the Moslems. This institution still exists, and has an annual income of $80,000. It is, however, as it was originally, only an asylum, affording no means of instruction; indeed, it was not until the 16th century that any processes were devised for this purpose. But little was accomplished in this direction till 1784, when Valentin Hauy, incited by the example of the abbe de l'Epée in connection with the education of BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, at Carlin- deaf-mutes, commenced his exertions to find an ville, Ill., was organized in 1867, by the Presby-efficient method for teaching the blind. Having terians. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, an eclectic, a scientific, and a theological course, to which both sexes are admitted on equal terms, and receive the same honorary degrees on the completion of the course pursued. There were, in 1873, 257 students, of whom 141 belonged to the preparatory and 116 to the collegiate department; and the corps of instructors numbered 13, exclusive of 4 endowed professorships. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc. is $90.000; and its productive endowment $90,000. The president of the institution is (1876) Rev. J. W. Barby, D.D. The annual tuition fee is $25.

BLIND, Education of the. The blind constitute, in every country, a numerous class of afflicted persons for whom special instruction is needed. Blindness, or loss of sight, is either congenital, or is caused by accident or disease occurring after birth. The statistics of different countries show that the number of blind persons in all ages has been quite large; and, in modern times, this has led to considerable effort with the view to afford to these unfortunates the means of education, not only for their mental improvement, but to train them to independent support,

succeeded with a few individuals, by the use of raised letters, he opened a small school, which in 1791 was taken under the patronage of the government, and afterward became the Royal Institution for the Blind. He subsequently founded institutions for the blind at St. Petersburg and at Berlin. About the same time, similar institutions were established in England and Scotland; and, after the example of that at Berlin, in many of the cities of Germany. There are now 16 public institutions for the blind in England, the oldest of which is the School for the Blind, in Liverpool, founded in 1791; 4 in Scotland, of which the Asylum for Industrious Blind, in Edinburgh, was founded in 1793; and 4 in Ireland, the oldest being the Richmond National Institution, in Dublin, founded in 1810. In London, 23 private institutions have been established by charitable endowments. France has 13 schools for the blind, besides the Hospice des Quinze-Vingts. There are between thirty and forty institutions for the blind in Germany, of which the oldest is that commenced at Berlin, in 1806, by Hauy. The Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland have similar institutions. In

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the Netherlands, they are supported entirely by | States-the Perkins Institution at Boston, was voluntary subscription. In Belgium, an asylum for the blind is said to have been founded at Bruges in 1305; but the first school was opened at Brussels in 1833. In Spain, there are two institutions for the blind, one at Madrid, and the other at Barcelona. There are also institutions of the kind in Italy, and a school for the instruction of the blind at Rio Janeiro, commenced in 1854. The first institution for the blind in the United

chartered in 1829, but not opened till August, 1832. It was named after Col. Thomas H. Perkins, who gave his mansion for its accommodation. It was under the direction of Dr. Samuel G. Howe until his death in 1876. The New York Institution for the Blind was opened March 15., 1832. The following table of statistics has been compiled from the Report of the U. S. Bureau of Education for 1875.

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Talladega, Ala....
Little Rock, Ark...
Oakland, Cal...
Macon, Ga...
Jacksonville, Ill.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Vinton, Iowa..
Wyandotte, Kan..

Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind.
Inst. for Education of the Blind..
Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind.
Georgia Academy for the Blind.
Inst. for the Education of the Blind.
Inst. for the Education of the Blind.
Iowa College for the Biind.
Kansas State Blind Asylum..
Asylum for the Education of the Blind Louisville, Ky.
Inst. for the Education of the Blind. Baton Rouge, La...
Inst. for the Instruction of the Blind Baltimore, Md...
Inst. for Colored Blind and Deaf-M. Baltimore, Md..
Perkins Inst. and Mass. Asylum.... Boston, Mass..
Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Flint, Mich..
Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind.
Institution for the Blind.
Inst. for the Education of the Blind.
State Institution for the Blind.
N. Y. Institution for the Blind..
Inst. for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind
Inst. for Education of the Blind..... Columbus, O.
Oregon Institute for the Blind..

Faribault, Minn..
Jackson, Miss...
St. Louis, Mo..
Batavia, N. Y...
New York, N. Y...
Raleigh, N. C...

Salem, Oreg.

Spartanburg, S. C.
Nashville, Tenn...
Austin, Tex..
Staunton, Va
Romney, W. Va..

Inst. for Instruction of the Blind.... Philadelphia, Pa..
Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind.
Tennessee School for the Blind...
Texas Institute for the Blind..
Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind.
Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind.
Inst. for Education of the Blind.... Janesville, Wis..

From the above table it will be seen that there are 29 institutions, either exclusively for the education of the blind, or for that of the blind and the deaf and dumb; and that, since 1832, when the New York and Boston institutions went into operation, about 7,500 blind persons have received instruction; also, that, in 1874, the amount of state and municipal appropriations for the support of these institutions was upward of $740,000, and that the amount of money invested in grounds, buildings, etc., belonging to them, is more than $4,500,000. It is an interesting fact also that 22 of these establishments are purely state institutions.

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the branches which are usually taught, in the common and high schools, to the seeing; the principal difference being in the apparatus and methods of teaching employed. Instead of the blackboard, wall-maps, slate and pencil, and pen and ink, there are employed topographical maps, embossed books, slates with movable type to represent numerals and algebraic signs, geometrical cards with figures in relief, metal tablets for tangible writing, according to the New York point system, also for the New York system of alphabetic writing and musical notation.

The first efforts to instruct the blind found expression in an attempt to teach them how to Methods of Instruction.-An institution for read by means of the fingers. Many alphabets the blind should comprehend three schools, or de- in relief have been devised, but all may be inpartments; namely, the literary department, or cluded in two classes: (1) Those composed of school proper, the school of music, and the in- lines, forming the ordinary capital or small letdustrial school. This organization is essential, ters in their original form, or in some modificain order to give the general instruction which tion of it; (2) Those in which the letters are every child needs, and also such special training formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect as blindness renders necessary. In the literary resembling the ordinary letters, and called the department, the course of instruction includes point alphabet. These can be both printed and

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written in a tangible form. The use of line letter text-books in classes is very limited, from the fact that a classification according to reading ability differs entirely from that based upon mental capacity and attainments. For this reason, the instruction in each of the departments is chiefly oral.

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and, consequently, the government is twofold: (1) that of a large and well-ordered family; and (2) that of a thoroughly organized school. The rules are such only as are necessary to secure the easy and effective performance of the many kinds of work which are carried on in the different departments. In all well-regulated schools, the male and female pupils are effectually separated except during the hours of instruction, and all communication is prohibited. The co-education of the sexes is common to all schools for the blind in this country, except those of Boston and Philadelphia. The institutions are not denominational, each pupil being permitted to attend the particular church and Sunday school which are chosen by parents, guardians, or friends. Discipline is maintained in the New York, Boston, and some other schools, entirely by moral means, no recourse being ever had to corporal punishment.

The instruction of the blind in music is of paramount importance. It develops and refines the taste, promotes general culture, affords constant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as the means of respectable support. The musical course of instruction comprises voice lessons, part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in piano and organ playing, and a thorough course of teaching and training in the tuning of pianos. Blind organists teachers of the piano, and pianotuners may be found in all parts of the country. One of the best tuners employed by Steinway & Sons, the celebrated piano-forte makers of New York, is totally blind. Heretofore, this depart- Systems of Printing and Notation.-Tangible ment of instruction has been exclusively oral; letters were first constructed in the 18th centbut there is now in press a piano instruction ury; afterward, the noted blind pianist, Theresa book, in the New York point system of musical von Paradis, of Vienna, represented musical notation, by which the blind pupil may learn by notes with pins on a cushion, from which her finger-reading from the printed or written page. friend Haüy conceived the idea of embossing The importance of mechanical training, in letters on paper. The first book in relief printcomparison with other branches of instruction, ing was, it is believed, Haüy's Essai sur l'éduin the education of the blind, is a matter of vital cation des aveugles (Paris, 1786). The first interest. Some are of opinion that instruction book in English printed in relief was issued by in trades is of the first importance; others give James Gall, of Edinburgh, in 1827; and two years it simply a place co-ordinate with other depart- afterward, he introduced relief printing in Lonments of teaching; while still others attach the don. His alphabet consisted of the ordinary chief importance to such branches as lead to English lower-case letters reduced to straight those employments in which skilled manual oper- lines and angles. In 1832, Dr. Fry obtained the ations are required. The latter position cannot prize offered by the Society of Arts in Scotland be maintained, since in all such operations the for the best alphabet and method of printing guidance of the eye is more or less essential to for the blind. This alphabet consisted of the perfection and dexterity of manipulation; from Roman capitals simplified, and was nearly the which fact it is obvious that purely mechanical same as that used formerly in Philadelphia. A pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to stenographic alphabet, invented by Mr. Lucas, of those who are deprived of sight. This being so, Bristol, England, is used in some of the schools it is a great mistake to rest the education of the of that country. A few years later, a phonetic young blind, and the prospects of their future alphabet was invented by Mr. Frere and introusefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such duced into some of the English schools. In 1847, employments. The true plan is to give manual a simplified alphabet, the letters of which conpursuits such a place in the scheme of education sisted of lines, was invented by Mr. Moon. This as is required by the conditions which blindness alphabet has been used in many schools. The alimposes. The training of the young blind in phabet forming the system of tangible pointone or more industrial occupations should be printing, was, about 1839, introduced into the rigidly enforced, not because such employments imperial institution for the blind in Paris, by M. furnish the only, the best, or the most available | Braille; and has been extensively used in the means of future support, but because such train- schools of France, Switzerland, and Belgium. A ing and discipline of the head and the hand in system of point writing and printing has been dework are necessary to the proper education of vised by William B. Wait, superintendent of the every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the New York Institution for the Blind, and is now means to an end, but not the end itself. Male used in nearly all the American institutions. This pupils are taught to make brooms, mats, mat- system has also been applied to musical notation. tresses, and brushes; to put cane bottoms into Systems of notation in raised characters have also chairs; and to perform other handicraft labors. been invented by Rousseau, Guadet, and Mahoney. Female pupils are taught to sew, knit, and cro- See Reports of U. S. Commissioner of Education chet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, for 1872, -3, and -4; Proceedings of the Assoand to work a great variety of articles useful and ornamental.

Government and Discipline.-From necessity, the pupils board and lodge at the institution;

ciation of American Instructors of the Blind (W. B. Wait, Cor. Sec.); also the publications of the American Bible Society, and of the American Printing-House for the Blind.

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