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found in streets and public places, not attending schools and not engaged in a lawful occupation," are sentenced to a reformatory for one or two years. This plan of dealing with truants dates from 1850, and it has proved an efficient agency in promoting good attendance at school. Children growing up without education or salutary control, by reason of orphanage, or the neglect, crime, drunkenness, or other vice of parents, on complaint of the truant officers, may be sent to an institution assigned by the city for the purpose, where they are boarded and educated. In

Private Schools and other Institutions. 1874, the whole number of pupils in private tuition-paying schools (excepting commercial "colleges"), whether incorporated or not, below the college grades, was 3,887. There were, besides, about 5,000 pupils in free denominational schools (Roman Catholic). The aggregate number of pri

high school, and 5 others for both sexes, located in recently annexed districts. These schools (1876) contain 2,180 pupils, taught by 50 male teachers and 48 females, whose annual salaries amount to $180,251.33. There are 50 grammar schools, with 23,971 pupils, taught by 96 male teachers, and 511 females; the greater part of these schools are unmixed. In the primary grade, for children from 5 to 8 years of age, there are 18,665 pupils, taught by 414 teachers. The whole number of pupils belonging to the day and evening schools is 49,423. The aggregate annual salaries of the teachers of the grammar and primary schools amount to $993,932.95. The special schools are, 2 for licensed minors, 1 for deafmutes, 1 kindergarten, 14 elementary evening schools, 1 evening high school, and 6 evening schools for industrial drawing. These schools are taught by 177 teachers, whose annual salaries amount to $42,824.64. The whole number of reg-vate schools is 93, with 358 instructors. There are ular and special teachers employed in the day and evening schools is 1,296; and the whole amount of their salaries is $1,217,008.92; incidental expenses, including salaries of officers, $507,364.69; total current expenses, $1,724,373.61. The amount expended during the year, besides this, for schoolhouses and sites, was $356,669.74. The cost per scholar for tuition, based on the average number belonging to the day schools, is $26.30; for incidentals, $10.55; total cost per scholar, $36.85. In 1875, the whole number of school-houses owned by the city was 144, which, with their sites, were valued at $8,500,000. The revenue for the support of the schools is derived exclusively from an annual tax on all the personal and real property in the city, which is levied by the city council. There is no legal restriction to the amount that may be levied for schools. The school sites are purchased, and the school buildings are erected, by the city council; but the plans of the buildings and the sites must be first approved by the school board, who have the authority also to determine the amount to be expended for the salaries of teachers. Tuition is gratuitous in all the schools; drawing-books, writing-books, and stationery are furnished gratuitously to all pupils; and, to indigent children text-books are also furnished at the public expense.

Salaries. The salary of the superintendent is $4,500; of members of the board of supervisors, $4,000 each; of head-masters of high schools, $4,000; of masters of grammar schools and masters in high schools, $3,200; submasters in grammar and high schools, $2,600; of ushers in grammar and high schools, $2,000; of head-assistants (females) in grammar schools. $1,200; of assistants (female) in high schools $1,000 to $1,500; of assist ants (female) in grammar schools, and teachers in primary schools, $800; of supervisors of music and drawing, $3,300 each; and their assistants, $2,500. The city is divided into 14 truant districts, each having a truant officer, with a salary of $1,200. Habitual truants, pupils who have absented themselves from school several times without permission from their parents or teachers, and absentees, legally described as "children

14 orphan asylums, with 37 instructors and 1,344 pupils; 5 business colleges, with 19 instructors and 717 pupils; 1 school of pharmacy, with 3 professors and 75 students; 2 schools of dentistry, with 15 professors and 40 students; 1 college (The Boston College, R. C.), with 8 professors and 145 students; 1 university (The Boston University, Methodist), with a school of liberal arts, and several professional schools; 1 school of theology, with 7 professors and 94 students; 1 school of law, with 14 professors and 68 students; 2 schools of medicine, with 35 professors and 195 students; 1 polytechnic school (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), with 36 professors and 356 students; 1 normal art school (state), with 8 professors and 200 students; 1 museum of fine arts, value of collections $100,000, value of buildings, etc., $400,000; 1 museum of natural history, having 10,000 volumes; value of collections, $100,000, of buildings, $138,000; 14 public libraries, 456,427 volumes, 232,900 pamphlets; value of buildings, $1,026,700; Sunday-schools, 157, with 4,450 teachers, 43,540 scholars, and 83,700 volumes in libraries. There are two conservatories of music, and numerous smaller music schools. One of the most important educational institutions in Boston is the Lowell Institute, established in 1839 by the munificence of John Lowell, to provide for "regular courses of free public lectures upon the most important branches of natural and moral science, to be annually delivered in the city of Boston." The fund, in January, 1873, was $642,711.32; the expenses for 1872 were $31,912.47, the number of free lectures delivered during the year being 264. Two drawing-schools, and the school of industrial design in connection with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, are maintained by the fund. The Institute is managed by one trustee, a kinsman of the founder. No printed document or report has ever been issued by the Institute. The Boston City Free Public Library, which was opened in 1853, and is supported by taxation in the same manner as the public schools, has six branches, and contains 306.287 volumes; the annual expense of maintaining it is about $130,000.

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BOSTON COLLEGE

BOSTON UNIVERSITY

designed for students of the average proficiency of graduates of the best American conservatories of music; and is the only institution of its grade and kind in the United States. The regular courses of instruction extend through four years, and include (1) a course for vocalists; (2) a course for pianists; (3) a course for organists; (4) courses for orchestral performers. All these courses include the study of musical theory, also the history and esthetics of music.

BOSTON COLLEGE, at Boston, Mass., was founded in 1863 by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, by whom it is conducted. Its object is to impart a religious, classical, and scientific education. The course begins with a "class of rudiments," and extending, in successive years, through three "classes of grammar," a "class of poetry," and a "class of rhetoric," into a seventh year of philosophy and chemistry. As in most of the colleges of this fraternity, classical studies occupy a prominent place in all the classes The professional schools include that of theolof the entire course. In 1874, there was a corps ogy, adopted in 1871; of law, opened in 1872; of 16 professors and other instructors, with 15 of medicine, in 1873; of oratory, in 1873. The collegiate, and 143 preparatory students. The School of all Sciences was established in 1874. value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is $200,000, The school of theology was formerly the Methand it has a library of about 4,000 volumes. odist Episcopal Theological Seminary of Boston, Rev. Robert Fulton, S. J., is (1876) the presi- which was organized in 1847. A school of fine dent of the institution. The annual tuition fee arts is projected. is $60.

BOSTON UNIVERSITY, at Boston, Mass., was founded by the munificence of Isaac Rich, who bequeathed for that purpose the greater part of his estate, amounting to nearly $2,000,000. The first, however, to suggest and advocate its establishment, was the late Lee Claflin, father of a recent governor of Massachusetts, whose views found an earnest supporter in Jacob Sleeper. Hence, these three persons are regarded as the founders of the institution, although Mr. Rich was its most munificent patron. Its charter was obtained from the legislature of Massachusetts in 1869. Its plan of organization is unique and comprehensive, including (1) Preparatory Departments; (2) Colleges; (3) Professional Schools; and (4) School of all Sciences (Schola Scholarum). The first of these are designed to fit students for the colleges; the second, to prepare them for the higher industries and arts of civilization, and for the study of the learned professions; the third, to qualify them theoretically and practically for professional life; while the fourth, including and supplementing the work of the professional schools, is designed to be a universal, or non-professional school of elective post-graduate studies, with special degrees, scholarships, and fellowships.

A fundamental idea with those who organized the university was, that a university should exist not for one sex merely, but equally for the two; hence the most ultra principles of co-education are carried out. Young men and young women are welcomed to all the advantages of the institution on precisely the same conditions,-not merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to the chair of the professor. The trustees of the New England Female Medical College, said to be the oldest medical college for women in the world, by a special act of the legislature, in 1875, transferred all its properties and franchises to the Boston University, and was thus merged into its broader co-educative school of medicine.

Post-graduate students of this university, desiring to fit themselves for professorships of Greek, Latin, modern languages, philosophy, history, or art, enjoy special advantages. By virtue of an arrangement, effected in 1875, with the authorities of the National University at Athens, and those of the Royal University at Rome, any member of the School of all Sciences, duly recommended, may pursue, without expense for instruction, and for any number of years, select or regular courses of study in any department of said universities, enjoying all the rights and privileges of university citizenship; and upon returning, and passing a satisfactory exOf the colleges three have already been or- amination in the work accomplished, can receive ganized: (1) that of Liberal Arts, in 1873; (2) a degree from the Boston University. The that of Music, in 1872; (3) that of Agriculture, faculties of these two foreign universities are supplied by the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- thus co-operating faculties of the School of all lege, at Amherst, associated with the university Sciences, which is designed (1) for the benefit of in 1875. This college has enjoyed a very high rep-| bachelors of arts, philosophy, or science, of whatutation since its organization in 1867; and by soever college, who, with little or no direct referthe arrangement made with the Boston Univer-ence to fitting themselves for a professional life, sity, matriculants in the latter, who desire instruction in agriculture, horticulture, and related branches, can receive it in the College, and on completing the prescribed course, can receive their degree from the University as well as from the College. The College of Liberal Arts answers to what is called in some American universities the Academic Department. Its courses of instruction qualify students for the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor of philosophy, and bachelor of science. The College of Music is

may desire to receive post-graduate instruction in this university; (2) to meet the wants of all graduates in theology, law, medicine, or other professional course, who may wish to supplement their professional culture by courses of study in related sciences, arts, and professions. This school is, thus, like the studium generale of the middle ages, the crowning and unifying department of the entire university organization.

Thus far, this comprehensive plan has been successfully carried out; and the institution has

BOTANY

received a large patronage and has accomplished much work. In 1874-5, there were 745 students belonging to the institution; of whom 268 were in the preparatory departments; 81, in the colleges; and 396 in the schools. Of the entire number in the colleges and schools, 102 were females. Its graduates from the schools of theology, law, and medicine were more numerous than those from the corresponding schools of Harvard or Yale. Its financial condition is prosperous, notwithstanding the heavy loss which it suffered in the great Boston conflagration of 1872. The final transfer of the Rich fund does not take place till 1882. The president of the university is William F. Warren, S. T.D., LL. D., elected in 1873.-See Boston University Year Books, edited by the university council, vols. I, II, and III.

BOTANY (Gr. Borávn, herb, plant), the science of vegetable life, treating of the elementary composition, structure, habits, functions, and classification of plants, in which are included herbs, shrubs, and trees. This is a branch of that general descriptive, or empirical science, called natural history; being based upon the facts of observation. The educative value of botany, especially in the early stages of the mind's development, is very considerable,-far more so, indeed, than its usual place in the curriculum of school education would indicate; since it is generally superseded by subjects which seem to be of more practical importance to the pupil in his after life. In the more modern systems of elementary education, both in this country and in Europe, particularly in Germany, the training of the perceptive faculties by the systematic observation of objects holds a very prominent place, indeed is considered the basis of all sound mental culture; and among all the objects of nature, none can claim precedence in point of variety, beauty, and interest, for this purpose, over those of which botany treats. It has been well said by a writer upon this subject, "As the love and observation of flowers are among the earliest phenomena of the mental life, so should some correct knowledge of them be among the earliest teachings." The facility with which plants may be collected, handled, and analyzed, as well as their general attractiveness, makes them peculiarly well adapted for object teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite repulsive to a child, but where is the girl or boy who is not pleased with the contemplation, or the manipulation, of leaves and flowers?

For the purpose of this kind of instruction, and as an introduction of the subject to young minds, the chief point is to direct the attention of the child to the most obvious characteristics of plants and of their parts, as leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, etc. They should be set at once to collect specimens for themselves, and be shown how (1) to observe them, (2) how to state and record the results of their observations, so that they may acquire a knowledge of the words used to express the characteristic peculiarities of different objects. Here will be afforded a wide

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range for the exercise of comparative observation, in the perception of both resemblances and differences, but particularly the latter. It is not requisite, nay it would be injurious, to teach anything of classification at this stage; nor indeed is it necessary that the child should know the name of any plant the whole or part of which is under observation. Some prefer to teach the names; since the child's mind has a craving for the names of such objects as interest it. When therefore, the name is asked for by the pupil, there can be no objection to the teacher's telling it. The observation and description of the characteristics are, however, the essential points to be insisted upon. For this purpose, no plan can be better than the "Schedule Method," invented by Prof. J. S. Henslow, of Cambridge, England, and ingeniously, as well as exhaustively, applied by Miss Youmans in her elementary textbooks on this subject. According to this method, the pupil starts with an observation of the simplest characteristics, as the parts of the leafits blade, petioles, stipules; its venation, margin, etc. The general appearance of these may be at first represented by pictures, but only to enable the learner to study the natural objects, which he carefully observes, and writes the characters in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as a verification to the teacher of the accuracy of his observation. (See YOUMANS's First Book of Botany.) It will be easily seen that by a continuous application of this plan, the pupil will acquire a considerable knowledge of the characteristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature of the science; and, moreover, that at every step his observation, and his judgment too, will be thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be able to describe the minute distinctions of form, structure, color, etc., that are subjected to his discriminative attention. This process harmonizes entirely with the following just view of a distinguished educator: "The first instruction of children in the empirical sciences should mainly consist in exhibiting to them interesting objects and phenomena; in allowing them to look, handle, and ask questions; and in giving opportunity for the free exercise of their youthful imaginations. A teacher may guide them in their explorations of the neighborhood, direct their observations, make inquiries, give explanations, conduct experiments, call things by their right names; but he must be careful to do it in such a manner as not to check their play of fancy or chill their flow of feeling." (See WICKERSHAM'S Methods of Instruction.) But the young pupil is not to be kept constantly at mere observation, or the comparison of the form, structure, color, etc., of leaves, flowers, and other parts of plants; his attention may be called to the simple facts of vegetable physiology, and thus shown "how plants grow" and "how they behave," as well as what they are. The elementary works of Prof. Gray, bearing the titles above quoted (How Plants Grow, and How Plants Behave), and Dr. HOOKER'S Child's Book of Nature, will be useful auxiliaries to the teacher for

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this purpose. Such information as the circulation of the sap, its use, the functions of the leaf, the root, the flower, and the seed, communicated in an appropriate style and explained by their analogy with other things, familiar to the mind of every child, will properly supplement the knowledge gained by the pupil through his own observations. The following description from the Child's Book of Nature, will illustrate what is meant by this:

"The bark is not all one thing. It is made up of two parts; or rather, we should say, there are two barks. There is an outer bark and an inner one. The outer bark has no life in it. It is this outer bark that gives such a roughness to the trunks of some trees, as the elm and the

oak. This outer bark is a coat for the tree.

It

History Series, and especially Henslow's Botanical Charts, will prove a great aid in showing clearly what the pupils fail to make out in the actual specimens. For the purpose of analyzing flowers, etc., a small microscope will be needed; one that can be so used as to leave both hands free for the work of dissection, is greatly to be preferred. This, with a sharp knife, forceps, and large needles, fixed in handles, is all that will be needed. Judgment should be exercised in the selection of the flowers for analysis. The simpler and more obvious, as the Crucifera, Rosacea, Leguminosæ, Ranunculacea, Violacea, and Labiata, before such orders as the Composit, Umbellifera, Juncace, and Cyperaceœ. The grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi, etc., will need to be studied at an advanced stage of the course. The artificial keys supplied in most textbooks should be used with judgment. Students are very apt to become absorbed in the desire to discover the names of plants by the use of these devices, as if that were the end of the study. But while there is no doubt that much progress can be made by the verification of the order and species of a plant, in this way, the great object to be attained is, that the student should become so well versed in observing and describing the peculiarities of plants, and in their classification, that he may be able to place them at once where they belong, only using the key when he has come across a specimen which belongs to some order with which he is unacquainted.

covers up the living parts so that they shall not be injured. It does for the tree what our clothes do for our bodies. It is not a perfectly tight coat. It has little openings everywhere in it. It would be bad for the tree to have this coat on it tight, just as it would be bad for our bodies to have an India-rubber covering close to the skin." In such a simple style as this, and with the use of similar illustrations, much interest may be awakened in the child's mind, its observing and reasoning faculties quickened, and a love of natural objects infused, which independently of the practical use of the knowledge gained, will constitute a mental culture of the highest value and prove a life-long blessing to its possessor. If, after this elementary instruction, it is deemed important that the science should be studied as such, the pupil must be gradually trained in classification, for which the foundation will have been laid. In this branch of study, as in all other departments of natural history, the mental processes to be successively performed are: (1) Observation, with the view to comparison and analysis; (2) Classification; (3) Induction, or the discovery of principles, so as to embody the observed facts into a science; and (4) Application of the scientific principles to new facts. The elementary exercises already described conduct the pupil through the first stage only; but the scientific study does not begin until the third, and is not completed till he has become practiced in the fourth. The observation of common characters in plants will necessarily lead the mind of the pupil to perceive the method and the value of classification; but such exercises need not be very protracted, since it is natural even to a child to generalize and classify, He will soon be prepared for the methodical study of systematic botany; and then very properly may be supplied with a good text-book. But the pupils must only use it as an auxiliary or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them still be encouraged to collect specimens, to notice as fully and accurately as possible their peculiar-planation of possible distributions, either in an ities, and to describe them by the proper terms. Some simple means of drying and preserving plants will be very serviceable, so that the school at least may possess a tolerably complete herbarium. Magnified and colored representations, such as those supplied by Prang's Natural

The utility of botany as a branch of school study has been thoughtlessly called in question. Its value as an educational agent has already been sufficiently shown, and a brief consideration of the relations of vegetable life to the most important interests of society will suffice to demonstrate its exceeding importance as a branch of knowledge. The agriculturist is greatly at fault who knows nothing of the principles of vegetable physiology, who cannot distinguish the properties and characteristics of the plants that cover his domain — some the object of his most tender care and concern, others his greatest bane. The florist and horticulturist are certainly unacquainted with their own arts, unless they are proficient in a knowledge of the structure, functions, and habits of plants; and the apothecary and physician have also an especial need of similar information. The geographer and the geologist; and indeed the scientist, in every department, needs to have a good acquaintance with the vegetable kingdom. Says Prof. Henfrey: "In geography, that is, physical geography, the concrete natural history of plants becomes a portion of the concrete natural history of the globe; the physiological laws are involved with physical laws of climate, soil, etc., in the ex

abstract point of view, or for the purpose of practical application; while the systematic classifications, and the natural history of particular species, become the only guide by which we can attempt to trace back the existing conditions of distribution towards their origin, and thus per

BOWDOIN COLLEGE

BOYS

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applications; (3) Philosophy, comprising psychology, metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and politics, the latter including the theory of government, constitutional history, principles of law, and international law. The first leads to the degree of master of arts (A. M.); the second, to that of doctor of science (Sc. D.); and the third, to that of doctor of philosophy (Ph. D.). Graduates who have completed any course in the post-graduate studies with honor, may be appointed fellows, to reside at the college with all the privileges of the same one or two years further, without charge, enjoying facilities for studies still more advanced, with opportunities for teaching in the line of their specialties. Much attention is given to physical culture, a gymnasium being provided with the most approved apparatus. The exercises are carefully directed upon physiological and hygienic principles, with the view to develop the bodily powers, but are, at the same time, subservient to the discipline of the mind. Instruction is also afforded in military science, and daily exercises in drill are given by an officer of the army detailed for that purpose. Since 1873, these drill exercises have been optional, the students electing between them and the gymnasium. Medical training is given through the Medical School of Maine, which, by an act of the legislature, in 1821, was placed under the superintendence and direction of the trustees and overseers of Bowdoin College. The number of professors and other instructors in the college, in 1874, was 15, and of students, 173, exclusive of those in the medical

form the share due to botany; in the historical connection of physical geography with geology, of which it is properly only the statical part." Moreover, to the clergyman, the lawyer, the orator, and all who need to cultivate and employ the art of persuasion, involving as it does, too, the art of elucidation, few subjects present so wile a field for familiar and impressive illustrations as the domain of plants, rich not only in those natural flowers which are pleasing to the eye, but also in those flowers of speech, which constitute the most attractive ornaments of rhetoric and poetry. The traveler and explorer in distant lands, who is a botanist, can find in the flora of every region he visits, food for profitable instruction and research; and the rural wayfarer, who has fled the bustle and confusion of city life for relief and rest, will, in a knowledge of this science, never fail to realize. at every step he takes, the most refreshing enjoyment. Surely no stronger plea can be set up for any of the branches of study which occupy so conspicuous a place in the educational schemes of schools and colleges, those alone excepted which constitute the indispensable foundation of all mental improvement. See YOUMANS, Educational Claims of Botany (N. Y., 1870), First Book of Botany (N. Y., 1870), and Second Book of Botany (N. Y., 1873); GRAY, How Plants Grow (N. Y., 1858); F.A. P. BARNARD, Early Mental Training, and HENFREY'S lecture on the Educational Claims of Botanical Science, in The Culture demanded by Modern Life, edited by E. L. YOUMANS (N. Y., 1867); WICKERSHAM, Methods of Instruction (Phil., 1865); How to Teach, a Manual of Meth-school. The value of the grounds, buildings, and ods (N. Y., 1873).

BOWDOIN COLLEGE, at Brunswick, Maine, the oldest and most prominent literary institution in the state, was chartered in 1794, and organized in 1802. It was named in honor of Gov. James Bowdoin of Massachusetts. The government was vested in a board of trustees and a board of overseers, which, in 1801, elected Joseph McKeen, D. D., the first president of the College. He was succeeded, in 1807, by Jesse Appleton, D. D., who served till 1819, when Rev. William Allen was elected his successor, and continued in office till 1839, when he was succeeded by Leonard Woods, D. D., who held office till 1866. In 1867, the Rev. Samuel Harris, S. T. D., was elected president, and was succeeded, in 1871, by Joshua L. Chamberlain, LL. D., the present incumbent. The prevailing religious denomination is the Congregationalist. Provision is made in this institution for a scientific course of study, distinct from the regular collegiate course, during the last two years, and especially embracing the modern languages, natural science, engineering, mechanics, and drawing. There is also a post-graduate course, which affords instruction in (1) Letters, comprising languages, ancient and modern (including the oriental), with the literature of each; philology, rhetoric, logic, history, elocution, and the fine arts; (2) Science, comprising higher mathematics, physics, natural history, and chemistry, in their uses and

apparatus is about $85,000, and its productive funds amount to $154,000. The college and society libraries contain about 31,000 volumes. The roll of alumni includes some illustrious names. Here, in 1825, graduated Henry W. Longfellow and Nathaniel Hawthorne; and subsequently Franklin Pierce, Geo. B. Cheever, John P. Hale, S. S. Prentiss, and Calvin E. Stowe. Thomas C. Upham, D. D., was professor of mental philosophy from 1824 to 1867; and H. W. Longfellow held the position of professor of modern languages from 1829 to 1835, when he was called to a similar position in Harvard College. The annual tuition fee is about $75. There are ten endowed scholarships, yielding from $50 to $60 per annum and, besides these, funds donated to the institution, amounting to about $10,000, from which aid is liberally afforded to indigent students.

Edu

BOYS, Education of. In the education of boys, the same general principles are to be applied as in that of girls; and, up to a certain age, in their school education, the same arrangements for discipline and instruction will answer. cation, however, rightly considered, has for its object to aid and guide the development of the powers or faculties, both generic and specific, of the individuals who are subjected to its ministrations; and, consequently, its processes should vary with the character of the faculties which are to be developed. And this is by no means the whole. Education is to be addressed to all

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