National Defences as Connected with Internal Improvements. 55 policy of the country that harbors and hands of the Americans, together with their dependent rivers shall be improved under the authority of Congress. The remarks which follow were embraced in a report to the Secretary of War on the national defences, and have contributed to break down the system of fortifications established thirty-five years ago, and to exhibit other powerful elements in the resources of the country, which, whilst they are the means of unexampled prosperity to the civilized world, make the United States physically and morally the best defended nation in the world against the attacks of brute force, with a correspondent power of offence, should international difficulties require it. some temporary erections of earth on the surrounding heights and islands, secured Boston from again being occupied by the enemy. Charleston was successfully defended by the Palmetto fort against a squadron of ships; and the success generally of the American arms up to the surrender of Yorktown, demonstrated, if not the impossibility of reducing the colonies to subjection, at least the enormous expenditure of life and money attendant on the attempt. This truth led, with other things, to a change of policy in England in regard to the United States. The new administration made peace with the colonies; and the wise statesmen of England saw In reviewing "the general system that an intimate commercial intercourse adopted after the war with Great Britain, with the United States, as an independent and since pursued in regard to the per- power, would probably be more advanmanent fortifications, then deemed ne- tageous to the interests of their country, cessary for the national defence," it will than the possession of colonies that would be relevant to the subject to allude to the require much blood and treasure to regain condition of that defence when the and hold; whilst the trade with the United States declared themselves in- same would be interrupted and precadependent of Great Britain, and prepared rious. The foundation of this policy was to sustain that declaration by force of the preservation for the future of uninarms, during the period of peace from terrupted friendly relations between Eng1783 to 1812, and during the war of land and America; and it was the determination of the party in power to secure, at all hazards and at all times, peace with the United States. 1812-15. In the first period the defences on the seaboard of the colonies, extending from Nova Scotia to Florida, were confined to a few points. England, having driven the French from their North American colonies, had little fear of any future attempt on the part of France either to regain her lost possessions, or to attack the other possessions of England in America. In the course of the war of Independence, the English were driven in succession from Boston, New-York, Yorktown, and other places, and finally from the whole country, by which the power of the United States, even in its incipiency, to resist aggression from the most powerful of nations, was favorably exhibited. Few or no additional seacoast defences were constructed during the war, yet the public and private armed ships, issuing from the ports of the United States, did immense injury to British commerce, and even kept the whole western coasts of England and Scotland in constant alarm. Some hastily raised redoubts on Dorchester heights compelled the English to retreat from Boston with their fleet and army; and the castle, defending the entrance to the harbor, falling into the But unfortunately for a strict adherence to these views, the great wars growing out of the French Revolution placed England in position to struggle for her very existence as an independent power; and, in the course of the contest, principles in relation to neutrality were adopted, and so rigidly adhered to, that the interests and honor of neutral nations, and of the United States in particular, were compromised. In persisting to assert her arrogant pretensions, the government of England was deceived by its diplomatic agents and friends as to the effect produced in America. These, judging of the strength of the party in opposition to Mr. Madison's administration, and of the talent and influence of the principal men of that party, constantly represented to the English government that the President would not recommend to Congress a declaration of war against England in the face of the powerful party opposed to such a measure. A secretary of legation, in Washington, was the only correspondent of the English ministry who understood the exact state of things in the United States. He repeatedly advised the minister of Foreign Affairs that the latter was not correctly informed of the feeling in America; and that, unless the orders in council were revoked, and other obnoxious measures and acts abated, war would certainly be declared against England by the United States. At last the secretary was listened to, and the orders in council were repealed; but before the news reached the United States, war had been declared. The messengers bearing respectively the declaration of war, and the order removing the principal cause which led to the declaration, passed each other on the ocean. Thus was the war of 1812-15, or, as it has been termed, "the second war of independence," a blunder which England lost no time in remedying, by seeking for and concluding a peace with the United States as soon as she could do so with honor to herself. At the time peace was made, England was never more powerful. Triumphant over all her enemies in Europe, by sea and land, she was left by the general peace of 1815 in possession of vast means, ready organized and practised in war, with which she might have given the United States some severe, though not fatal blows. But however much her pride of power might have been gratified by carrying her triumphant arms to America, she preferred at once to resume peaceful and intimate relations with the United States, and to secure all the advantages flowing therefrom, then and forever. Her far-seeing statesmen knew that the true policy to be followed in respect to the United States in 1815 was, with increased reasons for its adoption, that indicated by the statesmen of 1783; and they resolved that no future blunder should lead to a war between the United States and England, so far as the latter could prevent it. In this favorable state of the political atmosphere, the clouds that lowered over the northeastern boundary, over Canada during the patriot demonstration, and over Oregon, were soon cleared away. It is true that the United States yielded in these instances something more than was due to England's just claims; but it was rather the graceful yielding of a daughter to a mother's solicitation, than the acknowledgment of any power of coercion possessed by England. If the peaceful views of England were not then generally acknowledged, they are now made manifest. England is not only at this time, to a great degree, dependent on the United States in commercial matters, but signs are significant, that she considers her future fate depends on maintaining the most friendly relations with the United States, so that they would, from interest in commercial matters, and perhaps from a better feeling for their noble mother, look with disfavor on any combination of the European powers to humble and crush her. France also gave evidence how much importance she attached to the maintenance of the most intimate relations in trade with this country, and how reluctantly, if at all, she would resort to hostilities with the United States. The king of the French, supported by public opinion, was enabled to overcome the opposition of the chambers to the payment of the amount stipulated by treaty to be paid for spoliations on our commerce. This public opinion was especially expressed by numerous petitions coming up from the great commercial and manufacturing districts of the kingdom, praying that the difficulties with America might be settled, and peace preserved. During the period extending from 1783 to 1812, considerable expenditures were made from time to time on our forts and batteries at the principal seaports, in anticipation of possible war growing out of the French revolution; and more recently, in consequence of the continued ag gression on our commerce by English cruisers; so that when war actually broke out in 1812, there was not a town of any magnitude that was not supplied with one or more batteries. Nevertheless, there were a great many small towns exposed without defence to the enemy, and were left unmolested by him, seeing that their destruction or injury could in nowise facilitate his operations, whilst such acts of Vandalism would serve only to hold him up to the execration of the civilized world. In the course of the war of 1812-'15, the defences of the country were considerably increased in value by the construction of field-works; and in no instance were such defences, supported by well-trained and patriotic volunteers, overcome. Attacks were made on Fort Boyer at Mobile, on Fort McHenry at Baltimore, and on Fort St. Philip below New-Orleans, and were successfully repelled. Our vessels of war were blockaded in New-London, and chased into Marblehead and Boston, where they National Defences as Connected with Internal Improvements. 57 found security under the batteries. Cas- to be heard in opposition, if any was entine was taken and held by the enemy, tertained by them.* The acquiescence but being a point of no importance, it of these officers, if not amounting to apwas not retaken, for it served to detach a proval, led Congress and the authorities portion of the enemy's forces from opera- to suppose that no serious disapproval of ting at other points. the measures adopted was entertained by them. Being thus negatively endorsed, it was considered that a good arrangement had been made by the government, by which a lack of skill in the native officers, unfitting them for the task of designing the grand scheme of defence, might be supplied by an importation from abroad. Washington was reached, and the Capitol brutally attacked and defaced. The success of the enemy, in this instance, was obtained less from the wellarranged plan of his operations, than from the imbecility of the generals commanding the American forces rallied for the defence. The enemy was signally defeated many times, by sea and land, and the war was triumphantly terminated by the battle of New-Orleans. Thus was the country preserved intact, during a war of two years and eight months, against the operations of an enemy having the mastery at sea, and when the defences of the country were comparatively weak. Under the auspices of the foreign engineer, a scheme for the defence of the seaboard from Passamaquoddy to the Sabine was devised, involving a cost of many millions of dollars, and submitted to, and approved by the government. The progress of construction of the works under the new, or, as it has been termed, "the third system of defence," It should be here remarked, that a large was not very rapid. The Gulf frontier expenditure of money was incurred in being considered the weakest and most consequence of the want of facile lines assailable was first attended to, and in of rail, canal, or common way communi- about ten years the river and lake apcations leading toward and along the proaches to New-Orleans, and the ennorthern, Atlantic, and Gulf frontiers, trance to Mobile bay, were occupied by through which men, munitions, and strong works. The commencement of machinery of war could be transported. new works of the system was, in the mean Yet in face of these difficulties, movements were generally made when required, efficiently, and with considerable promptness. It was on account of the difficulty of wielding mobile forces for the defence of the seaboard and lake frontiers, rather than from any signal success obtained by the enemy against the ports and batteries, that it was determined at the close of the war to adopt a system of defence by permanent fortifications on a large scale. Under an excitement fed by the friends of the scheme, Congress voted large sums of money to be expended on works which were to be planned, principally, by a foreign engineer, with such help as might, perchance, be rendered by the native officers of engineers, some of whom had not altogether escaped distinction in the late war. A distinguished general officer of engineers in France, who stood high in the estimation of Napoleon, was engaged and received in the service of the United States under the title of assistant engineer, with the rank and pay of a brigadier general. No protest against this arrangement was made by these officers of engineers, whose rank and influence would have entitled them time, gradually extended to the north and south Atlantic coasts, and subsequently to all of the most important points along the Gulf and Atlantic frontiers. These defences, combining the repairs of old works with the construction of new ones, place the seacoast of the United States in a better condition of defence than that of any other seacoast in the world. In planning the new works, it seems to have been taken for granted, in many instances, that each work must depend on itself without chance of succor from forces operating on the rear and flanks. Works were thus constructed, to sustain a siege from ten to fifteen days, in the midst of a population from which relief to the invested work could be drawn in twenty-four hours. The expensive arrangement of these land defences have greatly increased the cost of the works, already from their nature very costly; Since the printing of this report I have been informed that the former distinguished chief engineer, General Swift, did make a strong and able protest against the employment of a foreign engineer to aid in arranging the public defence. The letter, dated July 1, 1816, containing this protest, addressed to the Secretary of War, is on file in the Engineer Bureau. W. H. C. and at this day excite the surprise of the through three epochs-that of the Revoprofessional examiner, acquainted with lutionary war, that of the war of 1812-'15, the vast means of collateral defence and that of the elapsed time from 1815 possessed by the United States, that any- to 1851. thing more should have been required for most of the works, than security against assault by escalade. In the first epoch it has been shown that the power of England, although relatively greater than it is now in respect to this country, aided also as it was by a considerable portion of the inhabitants remaining loyal to England, was inadequate to subdue our people, or to retain any portion of our soil. In the second epoch it has also been shown, that though the national defence, The report to be made by the chief engineer of the United States, on the second resolution of the series before mentioned, will exhibit the exact condition of the works composing "the third system of defence;" the number and strength of the works; the first estimates of cost; their extent, capacity, arma- by permanent fortifications, was weak in ment and actual cost; and an estimate of the sums necessary to complete them. This exhibition will prove what has been herein stated, that the United States, at this time, possess the best fortified sea coast in the world. comparison with the present one-and the means for the operation of the mobile forces were limited and difficult in their use, the most formidable demonstrations of the enemy were easily defeated, and the country preserved from any injurious attacks of the enemy, except in one or two instances. Whilst the defence of the coast has been gradually accomplished in the course of thirty-five years by the con- And in the third epoch it is shown that, struction of permanent, extensive and in the several international difficulties expensive fortifications, new and import- which have arisen with France and ant elements in the national defence and England, those powerful nations gave security have been rapidly-almost magi- evidence, throughout the pending negocally developed. Our population has in- tiations, of their desire to maintain that creased from 8,000,000 to 23,000,000. pacific policy so essential to the prosecu The progress of the improvement in agri- tion of the commercial and manufacturculture, manufactures and commerce, ing pursuits which have been extended and in the facile lines of intercommuni- so rapidly in their respective countries cation necessary to meet the demands of during the last thirty years. the growing prosperity of the country, has advanced in a ratio even greater than that of the population. The lines of communication, in combination with the electric telegraph, whilst they impart new life and vigor to the country, bring distant sections of it in easy correspondence with the centre, at once affording security against foreign aggression, and making the people more interested in preserving those glorious institutions under which, for seventy years, they have happily lived and prospered. The interior and exterior commerce of the country have advanced with surprising strides. The latter has become so necessary to the leading commercial nations of the world, that its interruption would produce disastrous results to those nations. The stoppage of the supply of cotton following a war with the United States, would be attended in England by the most serious consequences to her trade and finances-consequences deemed by many as being fatal to the political institutions of that country. In this brief review, we have passed This epoch, now of thirty-five years' duration, is distinguished for the profound peace which has been maintained throughout the civilized world, without interruption, except in the instances of the Mexican war, and of some unimportant conflicts in Europe-and whilst it has thus been distinguished, it is no less so on account of the wonderful progress made in the arts and sciences, by whose influence the character of nations and of their governments have been greatly changed for the better, affording new guarantees that the pacific policy, so long and profitably maintained by the leading commercial nations, will continue to be cherished towards all countries, and towards ours in particular. In view, then, of all these things, and especially of the new elements, moral, political and physical, claimed to have been developed and to have greatly increased the power of the United States, and which must be considered in relation to the future arrangement of the national defence, the undersigned thinks that the general plan adopted thirty-five years National Defences as Connected with Internal Improvements. ago should be essentially modified, by reducing the number and size of the works proposed to be constructed, and by abandoning some of the defences now in progress of construction, or which are about to be constructed under existing appropriations made by Congress. The undersigned is also of the opinion that the best interests of the country require that the subject of modification should be submitted to a board composed of artillery and engineer officers, and some eminent civilians; that no new work should be commenced, even if it has been appropriated for by Congress; and that no appropriation should be made by Congress for the completion and repairs of existing works, until the whole subject of the national defence has been considered and reported by the said board. The Secretary of War desires "that the chief engineer and the above-named officers, (Colonel Thayer, Lieut. Colonel De Russy, Major Delafield and Major Chase,) should direct their inquiries particularly to the following points: "1st. How far the invention and extension of railways have superseded or diminished the necessity of fortifications on the seaboard? "2d. In what manner and to what extent the navigation of the ocean, by steam, and particularly the application of steam to vessels of war, and recent improvements in artillery and other military inventions and discoveries, affect the question? "3d. How far vessels of war, steambatteries, ordinary merchant ships and steamers, and other temporary expedients, can be relied upon as substitutes for permanent fortifications for the defence of the large seaports? "4th. How far the increase of the population on the northern frontier, and of the mercantile marine on the northern lakes, can obviate or diminish the necessity of continuing the system of fortifications on those lakes." The results of the inquiries made by the undersigned in the premises are expressed as follows: 1st. The invention and extension of railways and of the electric telegraph, in connection with the great increase in the number and size of steam vessels navigating the rivers, bays, lakes and ocean, have added greatly to the strength of the Union, by bringing the most distant sections within a few days' travel of the centre, and do thus contribute to preserve 59 tranquillity at home, and repel aggressions from abroad. The lines of railways, assuming the radiating point at New-York, will shortly be extended to most of the important seaboards and inland towns in the United States. The telegraph lines following the rails, and also diverging from them, are beginning to interlace the country in every direction. By these means, and the rapid increase of our population indigenously and by immigration, agriculture and manufactures have been surprisingly extended throughout our broad domain, and an internal commerce has arisen, by the interchange of the products of art and of our various climates, which is considered to be of greater value than the exterior commerce of the country. With the exception of a few articles, our artificial and natural productions embrace everything that can be produced in any part of the world. These are immense elements of strength to a nation, and insure its power and prosperity. This is the moral effect. The existence of these railways and telegraphs contributes directly and physically to the defence of the country, by enabling men and military supplies to be collected promptly and moved rapidly to points threatened with invasion. Railways extend already along the coast, in some instances in double lines, from Portland to Savannah, connecting all the intermediate cities and other important points with the canals and rivers and the naval and military arsenals and depots. From this great base line, other lines, convergent and divergent, have reached lakes Erie, Ontario and Champlain, and they are rapidly approaching and crossing the great lakes and rivers of the west. And it is hoped that Congress will not long delay, in conjunction with the state of Texas, in making such a donation of lands as will enable private enterprise to commence and complete a railway leading from some point between the mouth of Red River and New-Orleans, through Louisiana and Texas to El Paso, and thence through the valley of the Gila to San Diego, in California. A single example of the pervading extent of the railway system will at once illustrate the subject, and exhibit in a favorable light these new means for the national defence. The completion of the railway, now in course of construction, from Wilmington, in North Carolina, to |