MODIFICATION OF NOUNS.-GENDERS.

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These modifications are marked by a change in the form, or spelling, of the word.

The plural number is generally formed by adding s or es to the singular.

In most nouns s only is added; but when s alone will not unite with the singular form, es is added; as, foxes, boxes: also in some nouns ending in o; as, heroes, mottoes.

Collective nouns may also be used in the plural; as, flocks, herds, armies, meetings.

A change in the spelling of a word to express a modification is called an inflection.

A change in the number of the subject noun often requires a change in the form, or spelling, of the verb. (See the sentences at the head of the lesson.)

Exercise.

Write the singular with each of the following plural forms :

In the word flies the y of the singular fly is changed into i according to the

rule for such derivatives. (See Lesson XV.)

LESSON XLII.

MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS.-GENDERS.

Father, mother-brother, sister-king, queen-boy, girl

man, woman.

How does each pair of these nouns differ ?

One is the name of a male, and the other the name of a female.

The modifications of nouns that distinguish the sex which they denote are called genders.

The names of males are of the masculine gender.
The names of females are of the feminine gender.

Which of the above nouns are of the masculine gender?
Which are of the feminine gender?

The names of things that are without sex are of the neuter gender.

The word neuter means neither, that is, neither masculine nor feminine.

Of this gender are such nouns as book, pen, water, truth, knowledge; that is, the names of things, which are neither male nor female.

Names that may be used to denote either males or females are often said to be of the common gender.

Of the latter class are such nouns as parent, child, friend, cousin, person, animal, etc., which may be applied to a male or a female. They are names that are common to both sexes.

How does sex differ from gender?

Sex is the distinction between male and female, but gender is the distinction of nouns in regard to the sex which they denote.

There are four classes of nouns in regard to the sex which they denote: 1, The names of males; 2, The names of females; 3, The names of things without sex; 4, Names that are common to males and females.

The gender of nouns is expressed in three different ways:1. By different words; as, bachelor, maid; boy, girl; buck, doe; bull, cow.

2. By different inflections, or terminations; as, abbot, abbess; actor, actress; hero, heroine; janitor, janitrix; executor, executrix. 3. By compound words; as, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; manservant, maid-servant; he-goat, she-goat.

MODIFICATION OF NOUNS.-CASES.

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Exercise.

Copy the following list of nouns, and at the right of each write the

5. Heroine. 11. Bachelor. 17. Editor. 6. Neighbor. 12. Building. 18. Cousin.

23. Women.
24. Science.

LESSON XLIII.

MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. CASES.

Nouns have another kind of modification, called cases. Cases distinguish the use of the noun as the subject, object, or attribute, or as the name of an owner or possessor. The subject noun is in the nominative case.

The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is in the objective case.

A noun used as the name of an owner or possessor is in the possessive case.

Example.-William gave John's book to Mary.

In this sentence, William is in the nominative case, because it is the subject; John's is in the possessive case, because it denotes the possessor, or owner, of the book; book is in the objective case, because it is the object of the verb gave; and Mary is also in the objective case, because it is the object of the preposition to.

The possessive case does not always imply actual possession or ownership, but sometimes a different though similar relation. It may be represented by various prepositions. Thus: "The man's house," equivalent to, "The house of the man." -" Ladies' gloves," or, "Gloves for ladies."-"Three years' work," or, “Work during three years." -" Homer's poems," or, "Poems by Homer.""Webster's Dictionary," or, "The Dictionary by Webster."

The attribute noun has the same case as the subject noun.

The case modifications of nouns require no inflections, except that the possessive case is indicated by the addition of s with the apostrophe (') before it.

When the plural form of the noun ends in s, the apostrophe only is added.

The following are examples of possessive forms :

Show by diagram the analysis of the following sentences, and parse each word, stating the classes and modifications of each of the nouns.

MODEL.

Edgar found in the tree a bird's nest having several pretty eggs in it.

MODIFICATION OF NOUNS.-CASES.

PARSING.

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Edgar is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb found. Tree is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and the objective case, because it is the object of the preposition in. Nest is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and the objective case, because it is the object of the verb found.

Bird's is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, common gender, because the name bird is common to both sexes, and the possessive case, because it denotes the possession of nest.

Eggs is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and the objective case, because it is the object of the participle having.

1. Arnold's treason was fortunately discovered in time.

2. Washington's patriotism preserved the liberty of his country. 3. The teacher told Henry's parents of his misconduct.

4. James's new book was lost somewhere in the street.

5. A true friend will always bear with his friend's infirmities. 6. A faithful servant constantly studies his master's interests.

Review Questions.

Into what two general classes are nouns divided? What is a proper noun? A common noun? What classes are included among common nouns? What is a collective noun? A participial noun? What are modifications? How many modifications have nouns? What are persons? How many persons are there, and what are they called? What is the first person? The second person? The third person? What are numbers? How many are there? What is the singular number? What is the plural number? How is the plural number of nouns formed? What is an inflection? What are genders? What is the masculine gender? The feminine gender? The neuter gender? The common gender? How is the gender of nouns expressed? What is the nominative case? The possessive case? The objective case? In what case is the attribute? How is the possessive case indicated? How may cases be defined?

Ans. Cases are those modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns to other words.