with; whatever may be the present prevailing provincial customs, or the ordinary usages of trade.

Whether 2240 be the most scientific or appropriate number of pounds to constitute one ton, or otherwise, it certainly possesses the convenience of general adoption, in the principal coal-producing countries of the world, in our times; and of being employed by the great maritime nations, among which Great Britain and the United States stand pre-eminent.

In this country, there can be no sufficient reason assigned why bituminous coal should almost invariably be sold in bulk-that is to say, by measure and anthracite by weight; or that the former should be calculated, in the eastern ports, by the chaldron; in the southern by the barrel; at the mines by the bushel and, although much more rarely, by the European chaldron or the ton-which ton is generally 2240 lbs. weight at the place of production, and 2000 lbs. at the place of consumption; especially in the eastern ports.

Without altogether discarding the old denominations, in our returns, we have, at least, accompanied them by other tables, representing an uniform standard of weight. We have not limited the process to American returns, but have applied it to every country. In relation to the United States, we have done so the more readily, because we hoped, thereby, to be instrumental in terminating the highly objectionable system of buying and selling a mineral substance like coal by measure; whether that measure be a peck, a bushel, a barrel, or a chaldron; for we have all these varieties, and all are equally indefinite, equally liable to abuse, and equally disadvantageous to both buyer and seller.

In Europe, in all the great coal producing and coal buying countries,— it has long ago been demonstrated, after very full investigation in all its bearings, that there exists no fair and equitable system, suited alike to the buyer and the seller, the miner, the producer, the transporter and the consumer, except that of weight.

Local usages and peculiarities are always sources of embarrassment in commercial transactions. We feel their influence in this country daily.

In Pennsylvania, for instance. In the tariff of tolls on bituminous coal and anthracite,-fixed officially and annually, and to be received on the State and Tide-water canals and railroads,-the article, mineral coal, is charged per 1000 lbs. weight. Now, as in Pennsylvania there is no such weight recognized by the producer or by the trade, for the reason already assigned, that the bituminous coal is sold by measure and not by weight, this new denomination, applied to the article on its transit merely, is obviously a source of inconvenience to more parties than one.

So also in relation to anthracite; for as all which is transported on these canals and railroads is mined by the customary ton, of 2240 lbs.; conveyed to the landings by the ton; freighted by the ton, and are bought and sold by the same weight: the departure from a universal practice of the trade by the interposition of the 1000 lbs. standard, instead of the genuine ton, not only occasions unnecessary trouble, both to the payers and the collectors of toll, but interposes an uncalled for difficulty in one branch of the trade.

Neither is the rule so general as to demand this interposition, on the score of conformity; for instance, the coal which has descended the Tidewater canal, and has there paid toll per the 1000 lbs. weight, on passing into the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, pays its toll on the ton of 2240 lbs.

Again, in relation to the movement of coal in neighbouring states, we may remark on the want of uniformity in the system of weights, which cir

cumstance interferes with the means of acquiring correct statistical information. Thus, the bituminous and anthracite coals which pass down the Schuylkill navigation, in Pennsylvania, are returned by the large ton, while all that pass over the New York canal is returned by the small ton, of 240 lbs. less; and yet the same coal was imported into the state by a different scale of measure,—both that which was shipped at Cleveland or Erie, for Buffalo, or that which came from Pennsylvania by the Tioga railroad.

In Pennsylvania, the Union Canal,* the Schuylkill Navigation, and the Lehigh Navigation, as well as the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, levy their tolls, and arrange their freights, by the standard ton adopted by the trade: thus employing a different system to that used on the state works.

We will proceed to point out some of the extraordinary discrepancies which prevail in relation to the coal trade; and which, considering we have heard for years past that great attention has been paid at Washington to the establishment of a national system of weights and measures, our readers would not suspect was still remaining in full operation.

Towards the commencement of the coal trade in Pennsylvania, even anthracite was calculated by the bushel. In the vicinity of Pottsville and Wilkesbarre, in those times, leases of mines were granted, the lessee in the former place paying two cents a bushel.†

In some parts of the bituminous coal-field, thirty bushels have been supposed to be equivalent to a ton in weight; in others twenty-eight bushels for gross weight and twenty-five bushels for minimum weight; and we have also heard of twenty-six bushels as representing the ton. For a long time, the usages of the trade, as regards anthracite, assigned twenty-eight bushels as the equivalent of one ton of Lehigh coal, thirty bushels of Schuylkill, and thirty-three bushels of Lackawanna coal. It is needless to point out the utter worthlessness of a system, if system it can be called, so vague, so utterly incorrect and unphilosophical; a practice which operated, so long as it was pursued, equally to the prejudice of the producer and consumer. Yet, it will scarcely be credited, the early returns, during several years, of Lehigh anthracite, were made in bushels.‡

There are numberless and insuperable obstacles to making weight and quantity synonymous terms. In point of fact, there is so much guess work : so much uncertainty, in assigning a standard of weight against a given bulk-which bulk is, of itself, entirely unsettled in real practice, that the consequence, not unfrequently, is that bituminous coal, in the large way, is not really measured at all. The present custom observed is this: Contracts for the coal which descends the Pennsylvania State Canals, are generally made by the ton of 2000 lbs. weight: considered equivalent to twenty-five bushels, each bushel being estimated to weigh 80 lbs. But what is termed the gross ton of twenty-eight bushels, which is supposed to represent the 2240 lbs., is in as frequent use; one being as often used by the shippers from the Alleghany mines as the other.

On the western rivers twenty-eight bushels represent a ton. On the Union Canal, of Pennsylvania, the liberal allowance of thirty bushels to each legal ton is made and accounted for. Yet, in this case, the coal conveyed on the Union Canal is specifically heavier than that of the western rivers, in the proportion of 1.350 to 1.230 spec. grav. The official returns to Congress

* The returns of bituminous coal passing on the Union Canal, used sometimes to be made in bushels and sometimes in pounds.

+ Pamphlet on the Coal and Iron business, Poughkeepsie, 1828.

t Dr. James's History of Pennsylvania Anthracite, Memoirs of the Historical Society of Philadelphia, vol. 1, 1826.

comprehend all bituminous coals throughout the Union, be their specific gravities what they may, at 80 lbs. to the bushel, and twenty-eight bushels to the ton. In Michigan, the coal business is conducted by the bushel measure. At the coal pits at Chesterfield, near Richmond, Virginia, the coal trade adopted as the standard, five pecks to the bushel; weighing ninety pounds. Consequently each ton of 2240 lbs. actually contains only twenty-four bushels and 80 lbs. over. This measurement, it must be stated, solely applies to coal at the pit's mouth. At the terminus of the railroad, twelve miles from the mines, another system commences. Here, at Richmond, where the coal is shipped, the orthodox bushel is four pecks. This bushel, therefore, weighs 72 lbs., and the ton is now represented by thirty-one bushels and eight pounds over, instead of twenty-four bushels; notwithstanding which the sales in Boston and New York are made by the chaldron of thirtysix bushels, or by the ton of twenty-eight bushels. At Baltimore, twentyeight bushels.*

In the southern ports, in Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans, another and peculiar standard prevails for the sale of bituminous coals; and we find that an indeterminate measure of capacity, called a barrel, prevails. Thirteen of these barrels constitute one ton; each barrel, whatever be the specific gravity of the coal, being calculated to hold a quantity which corresponds with two and a half bushels. This coal was purchased at the mines by the bushel.

With regard to the customs of the trade in the eastern ports: in Boston, foreign bituminous coal is imported and sold by the chaldron; American bituminous coal is generally sold by the bushel; and anthracite is purchased at the rate of 2240 lbs., and retailed at 2000 lbs. the ton. Sometimes the returns are given in tons, sometimes in bushels, sometimes in chaldrons, and one denomination being occasionally mistaken for another, we need not wonder at the singular discrepancies in the published statements of the coal trade there. In Philadelphia, anthracite, both wholesale and retail, is always sold by the legal ton of 2240 lbs. In New York and Boston, the ton is only 2000 lbs., thus gaining six tons on every cargo. On the Reading Railroad a ton of coal is 2240 lbs., but a ton of merchandize is only 2000 lbs.t

Nova Scotia coal is imported, in some quantity, into Boston; always by the chaldron. But what constitutes a chaldron seems a matter of somewhat arbitrary character. It sometimes is fixed at 3000 lbs. weight; sometimes at 2928 lbs.; but most frequently at 3360 lbs., or one ton and a half. The tariff duty is customarily levied on the chaldron of 2880 lbs., or thirty-six bushels; while the retailer sells a chaldron, which is sometimes 2500 lbs. and sometimes 2700 lbs. weight. The Nova Scotia chaldron of 11⁄2 ton, should contain forty-two bushels, of 80 lbs. each; but the custom of the trade, we are informed, raises the admeasurement to forty-eight bushels. In like manner, the ton is rated at thirty-six bushels, instead of twenty-eight.

Amidst all the intricacies of these returns and dealings, it is very difficult to get at the real quantity and prices of foreign imported coals; as the number of chaldrons purchased at the place of production, materially differs from that on which duty is paid, and from that which is sold to or by the retailer.

The registration of imports of Virginia coal in Boston and New York, is by the number of bushels only. At Sydney and Pictou, the mine or colliery

Baltimore Report, Nov. 16, 1843.

↑ Reports of the Reading Railroad Company, Jan. 13, 1845, p. 15, and subsequently.

measure is thirty-six bushels to the ton, even measure, or twenty-four bushels heaped measure.

While on this subject it may not be altogether out of place to note that complaints have been made in Pennsylvania respecting the irregulariy prevailing in relation to the weights of other substances besides coal. We have recently observed an article in a Philadelphia paper to the following effect: "It is a singular fact, that our measures for grain are larger than those of New York, Boston, or Baltimore. This deviation from uniformity is greatly complained of by our country dealers and farmers, who ship to Philadelphia, from Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia. A very large quantity of grain is shipped from those states to New York and other ports, which would come here, were it not for the inconveniences arising from the falling short of the measure. Some years since, Congress passed a law providing for uniformity of weights and measures throughout the Union. But we regret to say that our old standard of dry measure still holds its place."

The same writer alleges that equal ground of complaint exists in relation to the measurement of bark, and the same difficulty with respect to the retail measure of charcoal, in Philadelphia, has been lately settled by municipal legislation.

In the lead region of Missouri the present standard of weight appears to be on the 1000 lb. weight, as in Wisconsin and Iowa. Formerly, the custom prevailed of 108 lbs. to 1 cwt., or 2160 pounds to the ton.

In Pennsylvania, the weight of a ton of iron is local and arbitrary. Thus, we are informed by an experienced iron master, of Centre county, the number of pounds usually assigned as a ton vary according to the following scale:

In the tariffs of the United States customs, in every case, the ton is required to be of the weight of 2240 lbs.

Among many other irregular or uncertain customs of local weights and measures, we extract the following from our notes.

In Kentucky, corn is measured by the barrel, which is five bushels of shelled corn. At New Orleans, a barrel of corn is a flour barrel full of ears. At Chicago, lime is sold by the barrel, and measured in the smallest sized cask of that name that will pass muster. A barrel of flour is seven quarters of a gross hundred, (112 lbs.) which is the reason of its being the odd measure of 196 lbs. A bbl. of tar is 20 gal., while a bbl. of gunpowder is only a small keg holding 25 lbs., and of cotton, a bale is 400 lbs., no matter in what sized bundles it may be sent to market.

Ere we terminate this article, we will advert to two or three facts that have come to our knowledge respecting the uncertainty of any standard of measurement, after long experience, that can be adopted as a substitute for weight, in the sale of coals. For instance, I bushel of English coal, measured when dry, weighs from 84 to 85 pounds. The American bituminous coals are commonly averaged at 80 pounds per bushel. The same English coal, if measured when wetted, paradoxical as it may appear, the weight will be found not so great. The fact is proved, conclusively, that in the dry coal the small particles run to fill up the cavities, making the whole almost * The North American, January 10th, 1845,

solid mass: whereas a bushel of wet coals only closes up the hollow cavities; the fragments clog together, and the whole do not weigh so much as the dry coal of the like admeasurement.

With regard to the increased measure acquired by breaking up coal, it was commonly proved by the trade, that that which in the large or coarse state measured five bolls (say tons or chaldrons,) when broken up, fine, in the hold of the ship after delivery on board, measured nine bolls.

As to the continuance or toleration of the system of heaped measure for coals, we trust that an end will ere long be put to what has, with perfect propriety, been termed "a barbarous custom." A commercial author, Mr. McCulloch, observes that "all articles that may be sold by heaped measure, ought to be sold by weight. In Scotland, indeed, the use of heaped measure was abolished above two hundred years since." The French, Belgian, Prussian, Austrian, Spanish, Portuguese, and nearly all other European nations, adopt well ascertained weights for the purchase and sale of coal, and not measures of capacity. Throughout Hindostan, coal is always sold by weight. In the Indian countries north of the Nerbudda river, there is no dry measure of capacity, and every thing is, therefore, sold by weight. This appears also to be the case in most of the Nizam's districts, adjoining those of Ahmednugger. The introduction of a system of measure into the Deccan, seems to be of a late date.*

In the English Act of 5 and 6 of Will. IV. 1835, are the following important provisions:

It abolishes all local or customary measures.

It prohibits "the mischievous practice" of heaped measure. All bargains, sales, and contracts, made after the passing of this act, by heaped measure, shall be null and void: and every person who shall sell any articles by heaped measure, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for every such sale.

From and after the 1st of January, 1836, all coals, slack, culm, and cannel, of every description, shall be sold by weight, and not by measure, under a penalty of 40s. for every such sale.

All articles [except gold, diamonds, &c.] shall be sold by standard avoirdupois weight, of 14 lbs. to the stone, and 8 stone to the hundred weight, and of 20 such cwts. to the ton

=

2240 lbs.

"The fact, that so monstrous a system should have been persevered in for more than a century, sets the power of habit, in reconciling us to the most pernicious absurdities, in a very striking point of view. Happily, however, the nuisance has been at last abated."t

The United States is the only coal country, of importance, in the world, where the practice remains uncorrected.

The duty on foreign coke and culm, prior to the modification of the tariff in 1846, amounted to 60 per cent., on its wholesale market value— English, at the principal coal shipping ports, in 1846.

That on foreign bituminous coal was from 70 to 90 per cent., on shipping prices abroad, which is, among the highest duties, payable on any imported article, under the operation of the tariff of 1812.‡

A drawback is allowed on foreign coal exported from the United States, in such cases, for instance, where it has been landed and placed in depot,

* Martin's Colonial Statistics. Appendix iv. p. 143.

+ McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, p. 294.

Letter of the Secretary of the Treasury to Congress, Dec. 16, 1844.