APPENDIXES Page A. Unpublished monograph by Earl J. Barlow_ 305 B. Statistics on schools as reported by Rev. Jedidah Morse. 309 C. Statistics on Indian Schools as reported by the Office of Indian Affairs (1830). 310 D. Course of study for Indian schools (1890) 311 E. Correspondence of Commissioner of Indian Affairs regarding the transfer of Indian students to public schools... 312 F. Regulations concerning enrollment and attendance of Indian children in school.. -. 313 G. Chronological list of treaties made between Indian tribes and the H. Support of Schools: Tribal Funds.. 314 316 I. Annual appropriations made for General Education Fund (1871-1590)J. Substantive provisions contained in Indian Appropriations Acts which affect education___ 317 321 K. Survey of recommendations from six national studies completed from 1928 to 1974_ 330 L. Authorizing federal statutes pertinent to Indian education, Bureau of 332 P. Indian Controlled School Boards.. R. Money expended for selected BIA boarding schools, 1883 to 1946-. T. Survey of State Boards of Regents. M. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Obligations in Thousands, Fiscal Year 1950 to Fiscal Year 1976... N. BIA Education Budget in 1975.. O. USOE Setasides for BIA.. Q. Moneys obligated to Indian Controlled Schools by BIA. S. Enrollment of students attending off-reservation boarding schools by tribe... U. Public Law 93-638 Community College Survey. 335 336 337 339 340 341 342 347 351 V. Profiles of Seventeen Indian Community Controlled Schools 355 W. Tribal Council Survey__ 372 X. List of Task Force Hearings 379 Y. Letter of Lorraine F. Misiaszek to Senator James Abourezk, December 20, 1976__. 380 Z. Hearing Participation Information-- 382 (303) APPENDIX A A PREVIOUSLY UNPUBLISHED MONOGRAPH PREPARED FOR THE TASK FORCE ON INDIAN EDUCATION BY EARL J. BARLOW, BLACKFEET, OF BROWNING, MONTANA The Indian Period-B.C. to 1492 For purposes of this report, the era pertaining to the time prior to the arrival of white men on the North American continent in 1492 is referred to as the Indian period. The first people to inhabit the New World or the Americas were called Indians by Christopher Columbus when he landed in what is now known as the West Indies. He surmised he had reached India, and so he called the people he met Indians. The Vikings are believed to have explored the coast of North America about 1000 A.D. and if so, they failed to establish a lasting contact with the inhabitants. The question of origin and migration of the American Indian, north of Mexico, has never been completely answered. There is lack of agreement on the subject by anthropologists and archeologists. About the only thing scholars agree on is that the American Indian has been in North America a long time, perhaps at least 20,000 years. By the time Columbus arrived, Indians were living in the New World from the Far North to the southern tip of South America. Nearly every tribe has legends explaining the creation of their people. Indian legends told stories of the world before it had people, told stories of the origin of people and tribes, and told stories of tribal heroes. Before the arrival of white men in 1492, the American Indians who lived on the North American continent evolved civilizations which were suitable for their needs. Among American Indians of that time, men, women and children lived together in families and the family was the basic unit of their society. Families of Indians joined together to form local groups called bands. The number of people or families in a band depend upon the availability of the necessities of life in the nearby area. Generally, bands joined together to form tribes. Hundreds of tribes existed in 1492. There are varied definitions of what a tribe is. One definition is: "Among the North American Indians a tribe is a body of persons who are bound together by ties, consanguinity and affinity and by certain esoteric ideas of concepts derived from their philosophy concerning the genesis and preservation of the environing cosmos, and who by means of these kinship ties are thus socially. politically and religiously organized through a variety of ritualistic, governmental, and other institutions, and who dwell together occupying a definite territorial area, and who speak a common language or dialect. From a great variety of circumstances-climatic, topographic, and alimental-the social, political, and religious institutions of the tribes of North American Indians differed in both kind and degree, and were not characterized by a like complexity of structure; but they did agree in the one fundamental principle that the organic unities of the social fabric were based on kinship and its interrelations and not on territorial districts or geographical areas."1 Some Indian tribes in North America organized larger groups called federations. The Iroquois federation was made up of the five Iroquois tribes-Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca and Cayuga. American Indians of this period developed many institutions common to nonIndian societies or cultures and a significant one was education. Education has always been a need of human society, and every society evolved a process of educating its youth for active adult participation in that society. 1 Frederick Webb Hodge (ed.), "Handbook of American Indians, North of Mexico" (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, Inc., 1965), Part 2, 814. The Indian society devised a means for socializing the youth and transmitting the culture. The educational process was active and not passive. The boys and girls learned by doing. The process was not highly structured and was dependent upon parents, relatives and tribal elders for implementation. The curriculum could be described as informal but relevant. The life style of Indians was tuned to the natural forces surrounding them and the overall goal of education was to preserve and maintain their way of life. Indian children were expected to grow up as their parents were, to perpetuate tribal customs, values, traditions and ethics. Indians of that period were profoundly spiritual. Because American Indians did not have a written language, much of what was learned was by word-of-mouth transmission. The basic thrust of Indian education was traditional in the sense that the past was revered. The tribes had little formal structured government. Men became leaders through exemplary action rather than through formal election. The headmen were moral and spiritual leaders as well as political leaders. Decisions were arrived at in consultation with the heads of various families or clans. Indian leaders remained leaders only so long as the wisdom of their actions held the respect and support of the people. The system served the needs of the Indian people of that period. Planners of education for American Indians in the future should heed the advice of Sitting Bull who said, "If a man loses something and goes back and carefully looks for it, he will find it." Assimilation, Cultural Genocide Since the bolder, more enterprising, more gifted members of a group have more opportunity than others to leave, a high rate of assimilation can deprive a tribal group of its ablest young people, its future leaders. Within the various segments of the American population, conservatives have long warned their fellow ethnics against the corrosive effects of assimilation. Red Jacket, Seneca Chief, observed to a Christian missionary that the Great Spirit had put a great difference between his red and his white children. If He had intended the Indians to have the religion of the whites, He would have communicated it to their forefathers long ago. Let each race hold its own way of life under penalty of divine displeasure. Horace Kallen, 1915, formulated the objections to assimilation in democratic terms. Every American ethnic group should strive to perfect its own special heritage, because the true spirit of American democracy is the right to be different. "Cultural pluralism" would restore harmony. Ethnic groups are unequal in their cultural resources as well as the social and economic standings of their members. Accentuating their differences can serve to reinforce the disadvantages of American Indians. Education has not rectified the deeper inequalities of the American society. Forced assimilation of the American Indian into the dominant non-Indian society is short sighted, will be unsuccessful, and will perpetuate his misery. The transition of the responsibility for Indian education from the Federal government to the individual states was a direct result of two basic factors: (1) the organization into states of all lands within the continental United States formally in territorial status2; and (2) the Citizenship Act of 1924 which granted U.S. citizenship to all Indians residing within the continental United States. The posture of the Bureau of Indian Affairs is that education of American Indians is the responsibility of each state and local school district therein by virtue of Indian citizenship and the rights of Indians under the 14th amendment of the U.S. Constitution. The first treaty between the U.S. and an Indian nation was signed September 17, 1778 with the Delawares. The initial relationship of the American Indian to the Federal government was that of Nation to Nation. The Federal government, in response to specifically documented treaties or through voluntarily assumed moral responsibilities, began in the early 1800's to make provisions for Indian education, utilizing established sectarian schools, or in some cases, federally operated institutions. Such federal and religiously oriented education efforts predate the statehood of the majority of states. 2 Each state recognizes in its constitution or enabling legislation the responsibility to provide educational opportunities for all citizens of the state. |