the missions often had the benefit of farming and mechanical implements, domestic animals, and tradesmen sent by the government to the tribes in fulfillment of treaty obligations. Tribal annuities and education funds as stipulated in treaties were often applied for the support of mission establishments as well. Discretionary funds administered by the Indian Office also assisted the religious endeavors.* Another major source of revenue came from contributions from the religious associations and their membership, which provided pecuniary aid, as well as livestock, tools, and other real property for use in the work of Indian conversion."

Thus, the mission establishment was a self-sustaining community which provided clothing, supplies, room and board when necessary, and instruction for the surrounding Indian community. Although it was usually centrally located to the community, the mission provided boarding facilities for those who lived too far to commute. The schools were sometimes strictly day or boarding schools, but often a combination of both.

The main objective of the government and religious "civilizing" efforts among the tribes was to change the Indian way of life, encourage them to become settled and to practice farming, and generally to discard their native customs and traditions in order to acquire the behavior and habits of white men. As part of this overall objective, the schools not only provided religious instruction, but also taught reading and writing in the English language and elementary arithmetic. Consonant with the guidelines of the Indian Office for use of Civilization Funds, they also incorporated a type of manual labor training into their plan of education. It became more and more common to have a farm attached to the school to provide the opportunity to teach the boys agricultural and mechanical arts and the girls domestic economy. An attempt was made to extend these benefits to the local population as well. However cognizant the religious groups were of the great cultural differences facing them, they seemed to overlook those aspects of Indian cultural traditions and social practices which sustained them as a people, and steadfastly pursued their work of

conversion.

Forerunners to the Federal Indian School Service

The practice of sending Indian youths to boarding schools, distant from their home communities, was started in colonial times. In the seventeenth century, Indian boys were sent to Harvard, Dartmouth, and the College of William and Mary, and most private and mission schools had boarding facilities. The rationale behind this practice was that by removing them from tribal influences and customs, they would acquire civilized habits more quickly; and by providing educational opportunities for a few, the masses would be reached and induced to change under the influence of the returned scholars.

.

Section 13 of the Trade and Intercourse Act of 1802 (2 Stat., 139) provided an annual appropriation of $15,000 to be used to furnish the "friendly Indian tribes. with useful domestic animals and implements of husbandry, and with goods or money to promote their civilization.

U.S. "American State Papers," 1815-1827, 19th Cong., 1st Sess. 1826, No. 240, Vol. 2, Indian Affairs.

Indian youths attended different types of boarding schools, varying in the level and type of instruction offered and in the manner in which the school was operated. The two major types of boarding schools were manual labor schools and industrial training institutions. Although seemingly very similar, these two types differ in a significant way. Manual labor schools operated upon the plan of education which combined literary study with daily chores related to the maintenance of the school and farm. Half of a day was usually given to academic instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and sometimes in history, geography, and the sciences; while the rest of the day the students were responsible for performing duties such as farming, plowing, cleaning, cooking, sewing, laundering, caring for stock, and similar duties necessary for the successful operation of a small establishment. Manual labor training was considered very important for Indian children since it would prepare them for the kind of life which the government hoped they would one day pursue. Both mission schools and privately-operated boarding schools incorporated this plan to greater or lesser degrees. The practice became increasingly popular during the 1840's when the Indian Office was encouraging that Indian schools teach useful skills, conductive to an agricultural and settled way of life."

Industrial training schools, as vehicles for educating Indians, developed somewhat later than manual labor schools, and became an integral part of the Indian school service by the 1880's. They were more sophisticated types of boarding schools in that they were larger, had more elaborate facilities, and provided more systematic training programs. Some of these schools were privately endowed and operated independently of the federal government, and others were state-supported institutions of higher learning. Industrial training schools offered the traditional academic instruction, but in addition included in their regular curriculum courses in industrial and mechanical arts, such as cabinet-making, carpentry, wheel-writing, horseshoeing, dairying, tailoring, weaving and other skills necessary to life in contemporary American communities. The objective of the industrial training school was to provide the student with a kind of vocational training in order to develop him or her as a skilled tradesman or craftsman. Both manual labor and industrial training schools grew out of the theory that what the Indian needed was to be exposed to the habits and practices of civilized life, which, once acquired, would enable him to move into the mainstream of American society. Industrial training schools made a more systematic attempt to accomplish this, as they actually employed skilled instructors to train and supervise the work of the students, as a part of the routine instruction.

Boarding schools, under government, private or sectarian management, remained the major education institutions for Indians throughout the nineteenth century. Some of the schools which the students attended had been established exclusively for them; others were promi

U.S. Office of Education, "Indian Education and Civilization," a report prepared in answer to Senate Res. of Feb. 23, 1885, by Alice C. Fletcher under the direction of the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.,: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1888 (Milwood, New York; Kraus Reprint Co., 1973), p. 166.

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nent, established white colleges and academies in the United States. Here, the objective was to expose the Indian to civilized life by placing him in immediate contact with the white world, and to encourage him to learn a profession, such as medicine, law, or teaching. The schools were usually supported by a combination of public and private funds.

Similar to boarding schools, day schools had their beginning in the missionary efforts among Indians. As was mentioned earlier, many mission schools were located within Indian communities and provided educational services to the local population. Following removal, the Indian Office placed increasing emphasis on the establishment of neighborhood schools, believing this to be the best way to extend educational influences to youth and adults as well. In addition, it was believed that the parents would come to accept the idea of formal education more readily if their suspicions and unfamiliarity were removed, and their children could be kept close to home."

Another early forerunner to federal day schools was the small local school (sometimes called a camp school) established at or near an Indian agency, which was supported from treaty funds of the tribe and operated under the management of a teacher commisisoned by the Indian Office. These schools developed as a result of general treaty obligations of the government to provide for the tribe, and were conducted under the auspices of Indian agents. Many had farms attached to them so that instruction in manual labor would be available for the students.

Early day, or neighborhood schools as they were called, received government, tribal, and private support. Their objectives were similar to those of the mission and boarding schools-to encourage and sustain the adoption of the habits of civilized life in Indian youth. Their primary emphasis was to teach the rudiments of an English education, and to introduce their students to the idea of manual labor to whatever extent possible.

Development of the Federal Indian School System

The various types of educational institution gradually developed into what came to be known as the Indian School System. However, it was not uniform by any means, either in administration, operation, or management. The end of the treaty-making period had instigated a radical change in the federal involvement in Indian education. The first general appropriation for Indian education, not contingent on treaty obligations, appeared in the Indian appropriations act for fiscal year 1871. Each year these general appropriations increased, specific appropriations were added, and treaty stipulations continued-all of which provided revenue for Indian schools. The number of day and boarding schools had increased greatly, and the Indian Office was supporting Indians in a variety of educational institutions.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid., p. 167.

U.S. "Statutes at Large," Vol. 16, 335. The following year, a provision was contained in the Indian Appropriations Act approved March 3, 1871 (16 Stat. 544) which discontinued treaty making as a government policy.

In 1885, the Superintendent of Indian Schools described the confusing state of affairs in his annual report. He commented:

The existing system of Indian education was not thoughtfully prepared by wise statesmanship and then, with deliberation, put into operation by carefully considered legislation. It was evolved. The schools developed themselves one from another in gradual transition. But, unfortunately, the schools did not thus develop in accordance with the requirements of any law. Consequently, the school system which has resulted is not only imperfect when considered as a whole, but also defective in its parts.10

His report described the "machinery" of the system, which he classified under five categories: (1) Day Schools; (2) Boarding Schools on Reservations; (3) Boarding Schools Not on Reservations; (4) Training Schools; and (5) Other Schools.11

Three kinds of day schools were operating, each having more or less government support and supervision. Government day schools were entirely financed and operated by the government, in conjunction with the Indian agencies. Contract day schools were maintained by religious societies or private individuals, but the government paid tuition of Indian children attending on a per-capita basis. Located within the jurisdiction of the agencies, these schools reported to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs through the local Indian agent, Mission day schools educated Indian children at the total expense of religious associations, and so were entirely independent of the government regarding financial aid and supervision. They did, however, often report to the Commissioner concerning their progress in Indian education.12 Reservation boarding schools had multiplied and there were four kinds serving Indians. The Agency Boarding Schools were totally government-operated and financed by Congressional appropriations and Indian treaty funds. They were supervised by Indian agents, who reported on their operations to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Contract Boarding Schools and Mission Boarding Schools, located on reservations, were quite similar. Both were operated by religious societies or by individuals, having received authority from the Secretary of the Interior. Operational expenses for the schools were borne by the societies or other contractors.

Both received a per-capita rate for Indian children attending, but the mission boarding schools also received supplies, clothing, and subsistence materials, furnished through the agency. Finally, Independent Boarding Schools were established because the size of many reservations made it difficult for the agents to effectively supervise the operation of the schools. These schools were placed under bonded superintendents and reported directly to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.13

The Off-Reservation Boarding Schools were of two types, neither of which was considered to be a strictly government school, as all were

10 U.S. Department of the Interior, "Annual Report of the Superintendent of Indian Schools to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1885," (Washington. D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office), p. 120. Hereinafter cited as "Annual Report of the Superintendent of Indian Schools for the Specified Year."

11 It is important to note that each of these types of school is still in existence today. 12 "Annual Report of the Superintendent of Indian Schools for the Year 1885," supra note 10, p. 109.

13 Ibid., pp. 109-110.

independent of Indian agencies and reported directly to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. The first type, commonly referred to as "schools in the States and Territories," included industrial, mechanical, agricultural, or literary institutions, operating in the United States but not on Indian reservations, under the control of educational organizations, and enrolling white children as well as Indian pupils. A fixed rate of tuition was paid to these schools "for the care, support, and education of Indian pupils." 14 The other kind was established by religious organizations for the exclusive purpose of educating Indian children. These schools were under contract with the United States Government, which made payments for the education of the children from the general school appropriations of the Indian Department.15 The fourth classification of Indian schools was the Training Schools, whose objective was to train the Indian students in crafts and trades. Some of these schools were established and supported wholly by the government out of special appropriations for the purpose, their superintendents being directly responsible to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, to whom they were required to report. Other schools were established for general educational purposes by religious or educational organizations and received a per-capita payment for Indian students enrolled.16

Finally, the schools designated as "other" by the Indian School Superintendent included the schools of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory, which operated independently of the federal government and under the control of the tribes, and the schools for the New York Indians, which were controlled by the State.17

It is evident that the Indian school service presented a varied pattern of educational administration and management. In 1887, the Superintendent of Indian Schools reported on the Indian school statistics as follows: There were eleven government boarding schools under bonded superintendents. These included such schools as Chilocco, Albuquerque, Grand Junction, Carlisle, Genoa, Haskell, and Fort Hall, all of which were industrial training schools located either off reservations or very distant from agencies. Schools under the supervision of Indian agents included fifty-seven reservation boarding and ninety agency day schools. A total of seventy-three schools (fiftytwo boarding and twenty-one day) were operating under contract with the Indian Bureau, managed either by religious organizations or by individuals. Contractors included the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, the American Missionary Association, the Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church, the Protestant Episcopal Church, Mennonite Missions, the American Unitarian Association, and the presidents of the University of New Mexico and Howard University in the District of Columbia. Finally, seventeen mission schools were operating at the total expense of religious societies.18

14 U.S. "Statutes at Large," Vol. 23, 76. This Indian Appropriations Act for fiscal year 1885 included in the provisions for support of schools: "For care, support and education of Indian children at industrial, agricultural, mechanical, or other schools, other than those herein provided for, in any of the states or territories of the United States, at a rate not to exceed $167 for each child."

15 Annual Report of the Superintendent of Indian Schools for the Year 1885," supra note 10, p. 110.

10 Ibid., p. 111.

17 Ibid.

18 "Annual Report of the Superintendent of Indian Schools for the Year 1887," supra note 10, pp. 6 and 42-50.