of St. Paul's in London, 39,000 lbs.; those under the dome of St. Peter's at Rome, 33,000 lbs. (See STRENGTH OF MATERIALS). The methods of extracting stones from their beds are described under each variety (see also BLASTING); the mode of shaping blocks of stone by sawing in the article MARBLE, and of polishing in LAPIDARY. The dressing of blocks of stone is usually performed with wedge-shaped hammers by hand, the surface being gradually reduced by light blows, each one being struck in regular order close to the points abraded by the preceding blow. The work upon hard stones is necessarily laborious, and machines have been devised in England and in the United States for accomplishing it by steam power upon several plans. By one method large masses of hard stone are cut by a series of chisels, which follow each other in the same track, each striking a heavy blow, and which are fixed to a frame that travels on a kind of railway. Pavement slabs are cut in Dean Forest by revolving disks, 10 or 12 feet in diameter, which carry on the periphery 20 or 30 cutters. A machine devised by the earl of Caithness, for dressing the surface of hard slabs for street pavements, consists of about 30 iron bars standing vertically by the side of each other and each toothed at the bottom; these are raised successively and fall heavily upon the stone, which is carried along slowly beneath them. The following is an account of a very efficient machine invented by Mr. Charles Wilson of Springfield, Mass., for dressing sandstone. Broad wheels or cylinders are made by placing 8 to 12 disks of steel, 7 inches in diameter, and as thick as a common circular saw of that size, alternating with iron washers of an inch thick and inch less in diameter than the disks. Two such cylinders are adjusted upon their axes so that the cutters stand at an angle of about 25° with a horizontal line, and are then caused to revolve in an "iron head," which passes quickly back and forth across the stone as this is moved slowly along upon its carriage, like that used in saw mills. A rough block of 6 superficial feet has been smoothly dressed in this way in 8 minutes. Marble and other soft stones are sometimes cut into parallel slabs by circular cutters of this kind set upon a horizontal axis, at distances apart equal to the intended width of the strips. Circular pieces are sometimes cut by means of chisels fixed to the ends of revolving horizontal arms. Small circles have been cut with hollow cylindrical chisels made to revolve upon their axes; in this way pillars have been made, and hollow cylinders or tubes of stone. (See PIPE, vol. xiii. p. 346.) Stones are sometimes turned in lathes shaped with cutting tools; and mouldings upon flat stones are produced by running the stones through lathes upon which are fixed the tools, sometimes of iron, having the counterpart shape of the moulding to be made. Such tools may be fed with sand and water.-The want of durable

building stones in certain localities, and the extreme labor of dressing them, have led to many attempts to produce artificial substitutes, that might be moulded from liquid or plastic compounds, and which should afterward become solid and durable; and also to produce certain applications which should harden and render more permanent soft stones that are easily dressed. Bricks are successful substitutes for stone, and pottery and terra cotta have been produced in various forms applicable to architectural purposes. The cinders of iron smelting furnaces have also been run into moulds, and strengthened by slow cooling, with the same object; but this application does not seem to have succeeded. It has been also proposed to mould the alkaline solutions of silica (see SILICATES, SOLUBLE); but their employment seems likely to prove more beneficial in coating the softer stones. Ransome's process, recently introduced into England, by which he produces artificial stones for a great variety of purposes, as grindstones, whetstones for scythes, mouldings, &c., for decorations, tombstones, tablets, and chimney pieces, consists in moulding a mixture of 10 parts of sand, 1 of powdered flint, 1 of clay, and 1 of the alkaline solution of flint, after they have been thoroughly kneaded into a putty-like consistence. The proportions of the ingredients vary with different articles. The moulds are generally of plaster of Paris, oiled over and dusted with finely powdered glass, and the compound is rammed into them with a stick. When the casts are taken out, they are first washed over or floated with a diluted solution of the silicate. To cause the casts to dry equally and to prevent the formation of an external crust impervious to the moisture from the interior, the ingenious expedient was adopted of placing the articles in a close chamber heated by steam, into which a jet of steam is admitted, until the stones attain throughout a temperature of 212° or more. The vapor then being allowed to escape slowly from the chamber, the stones are left uniformly dried. A variety of stony mixtures have been compounded so as to resemble many of the natural stones, and the materials have been held together by cements of different sorts; but none of them have ever been brought into extensive use. The external applications proposed (beside the soluble silica) for protecting the surface of stones are numerous. The most promising of these seem to be of oily, fatty resinous matters, which the stone is made to imbibe, sometimes by being boiled in them. Gutta percha, quicklime, copperas, and various other substances have also been introduced into the preparations. Patents were taken out in England in 1856 for applications, first of a solution of sulphate of zinc or of alum, followed by one of sulphur in oil; and another for a solution of wax in coal tar, naphtha, &c.

STONE, the common name of calculus in the urinary bladder, for the composition of

which see CALCULI and GRAVEL. The prominent symptoms are irritability of the bladder, with frequent irresistible desire to pass water, and occasional stoppage of the stream, with pain in various parts of the urinary system; none of these, however, can be depended on, the only sure diagnosis resting on making the stone perceptible to the ear and fingers by means of a metallic sound introduced through the urethra, and brought into direct contact with the foreign body; even with this instrument, several introductions in various positions of the body are sometimes necessary for its detection. The symptoms vary in intensity according to the size and roughness of the stone, the state of the urine, and the condition of the bladder. Stone may be formed from the urine and from the mucus of the bladder, the latter being always phosphatic; all stones become coated with phosphates if they remain long enough to produce inflammation of the mucous membrane; the phosphatic are the largest stones. Supposing all methods for correcting the diseased condition of the urine and for removing pain and irritation to have been used in vain (see GRAVEL), the only other remedy is to extract the foreign body; this may be attempted in 4 ways, extraction through the urethra, solution by injections into the bladder, lithotomy (Gr. Ados, stone, and rouos, incision), and lithotrity or more properly lithotripsy (Gr. Ados, and rpw, to grind). Extraction by the urethra was employed by the Egyptians centuries ago; it is practicable only for small stones, and especially applicable in females, where the canal is short and nearly straight; in favorable cases, when the irritability of the bladder has been diminished and the organ filled with fluid, the urethra may be dilated by bougies, and small stones be extracted by forceps made for the purpose. Sir Benjamin Brodie has shown that phosphatic calculi may be sometimes entirely dissolved, or so disintegrated as to escape by the urethra, by the injection of very dilute nitric acid; uric acid calculi are more rebellions to this treatment, and the oxalic entirely so. Both these processes are less employed, as the other two methods are more certain, and generally unattended with danger. If the stone be large, sacculated, or very hard, the urethra strictured, the prostate gland enlarged, the coats of the bladder diseased, or the patient very weak and irritable, most surgeons would employ lithotomy in preference to lithotrity; both these operations are comparatively rare on the Atlantic seaboard of the northern states, but very common in the western and middle states, where limestone strata take the place of the granitic rocks. Supposing the operation not to be contra-indicated by organic disease, and the general and local condition of the organs to be as good as possible, lithotomy may be performed in 4 ways, called respectively the lateral, bilateral, recto-vesical, and high or hypogastric operations. The lateral operation is in general the best, and it may be performed

as follows: a grooved steel staff or sound of full size is introduced, the bladder being moderately distended, the patient on his back, with shoulders elevated, thighs separated widely in order to expose the perineum, the hand grasping the foot and bound together; the patient being etherized, an incision is made on the left side of the perineum from about an inch before the anus downward and outward to a point midway between the anal opening and the tuberosity of the ischium, the muscular fibres being divided down to the staff; the groove is carefully entered by the knife or gorget, the lascia divided forward, and the urethra perforated a little in front of the prostate, the rectum being thrust back by a finger in the incision; the knife is gently pushed into the bladder, slitting up the urethra and dividing the prostate for about half an inch; the finger is then introduced, dilating the opening; the finger being withdrawn, the forceps are introduced, opened, and the stone seized, if possible, with the first gush of fluid from the wound, and then extracted by slow, steady, and undulating movements, dilating and not tearing the soft parts. If properly performed, and the after treatment not interfered with by hæmorrhage, inflammation, sloughing, or other complications, the urine begins to flow by the urethra in about a week, and the wound heals completely in 4 or 5 weeks. In the bilateral operation, a curved incision, with the convexity upward, is made from one side of the perineum to the other, between the anus and the urethral bulb, dividing both sides of the prostate by a double bistoury; the recto-vesical operation consists in cutting into the bladder from the rectum on the median line behind the prostate; and in the high operation the bladder is opened above the pubes through the linea alba, where there is no covering of peritoneum; the last is resorted to when the stone is of great size, the prostate enlarged, or the tuberosities of the ischia too near together. Lithotomy was practised 25 centuries ago; Hippocrates bound his pupils by oath not to practise it, but it came into use again in the time of Celsus, in whose writings are found the first indications of the bilateral operation; the lateral operation was first practised toward the end of the 17th century; the recto-vesical method was first employed by Sanson.-Lithotrity has for its object to reduce a stone in the bladder by crushing it into fragments so small that they may be expelled by the urethra. The early instruments used for this purpose were very rude and dangerous, the stone being grasped by branches made to protrude from a straight catheter, and then bored by a drill extending through the instrument and worked by a watchmaker's bow; after it was bored it was crushed by another complicated instrument. The next improvement was introduced by Heurteloup in 1830, which consisted in seizing the stone in curved forceps, the anterior sliding in the posterior blade, and then breaking it to pieces by

blows applied outside with a hammer; the instrument was liable to be bent or broken, and the urethra and bladder to be wounded by it or the fragments of the stone. The instrument now used is composed of two sliding blades, introduced in the shape and after the manner of a sound, between which the stone is seized, and then crushed by the gradual pressure of a screw; the fragments may then be washed out by injections or by the urine, large pieces being again broken by the same or a smaller instrument. This operation, by variously modified instruments, is generally preferred to lithotomy, as easier, safer, applicable in a greater variety of cases and at all ages, and quite as effectual. STONE, a new S. W. co. of Missouri, bordering on Arkansas, intersected by White river, and drained by its tributary the James; area, about 500 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 2,401, of whom 16 were slaves. The surface is broken and the soil fertile. Capital, Galena.

STONE, FRANK, an English painter, born Aug. 23, 1800, died Nov. 16, 1859. He originally painted in water colors, and in 1837 became a contributor to the exhibitions of the royal academy. Subsequently for more than 20 years he produced many works in genre and history, and on subjects of sentiment and imagination. Some of these are well known by engravings, particularly the companion pieces entitled The First Appeal" and "The Last Appeal," once very popular. He was elected an associate of the royal academy in 1851.

STONE, THOMAS, a signer of the declaration of independence, born at Pointon Manor, Charles co., Md., in 1743, died in Alexandria, Va., Oct. 5, 1787. Having studied law, he commenced practice at Frederictown, Md., in 1769, and in 1771 removed to Charles co. In 1774 he was by a vote of the provincial deputies added to the Maryland delegation in congress, and in 1775 was rechosen. He strongly favored the establishment of an independent government, although under instruction from the Maryland convention to oppose it; but that state receded from its opposition in time to allow its delegates to sign the declaration. He served on several committees, including that charged to prepare a plan of confederation. Reelected to congress in 1777, he saw that plan accepted, declined another election, and became a member of the Maryland legislature, where the measure was still opposed. In 1783 he was again elected to congress.

STONE, WILLIAM LEETE, an American journalist and author, born at New Paltz, Ulster co., N. Y., April 20, 1792, died at Saratoga Springs, Aug. 15, 1844. When a child, his father removed to the valley of the Susquehanna. The son received from him thorough instruction in Latin and Greek, and at the age of 17 entered a newspaper office at Cooperstown to learn the printer's trade, and soon began to write newspaper paragraphs. In 1813 he became the editor of the "Herkimer American," and subsequently edited political newspapers at

Hudson, Albany, and Hartford. In the spring of 1821 he became editor and one of the proprietors of the New York "Commercial Advertiser," which position he retained till his death. Though possessing decided ability as a political writer, Col. Stone (as he was always called) preferred literary pursuits to partisanship. In 1825 he was appointed by the corporation of New York to write the narrative of the "Grand Erie Canal Celebration." His tales and sketches published in the annuals were subsequently collected in 2 volumes. "Ups and Downs in the Life of a Distressed Gentleman" (1836), a satirical work, was very successful. Among his more elaborate works were "Letters on Masonry and Anti-Masonry" (8vo., New York, 1832); "Border Wars of the American Revolution" (2 vols. 18mo., 1834); "Matthias and his Impostures" (18mo., 1835); "The Life of Joseph Brant" (2 vols. 8vo., Cooperstown, 1838); "Life and Times of Red Jacket" (8vo., New York, 1840); “The Poetry and History of Wyoming" (16mo., 1841), and "Uncas and Miantonomoh" (12mo., 1842). At the time of his death he was engaged upon a life of Sir William Johnson.

STONE BORER, a name given to several bivalve shells, especially pholas (Linn.) and lithodomus (Cuv.), from their power of boring into the hardest rocks. The pholadida (Gr.

wλew, to hide in a hole) are true bivalves, and have 2 accessory plates in the neighborhood of the hinge for the protection of the dorsal muscles; they belong to the group siphonophora (Gray), or those having long respiratory siphons, united for the greater part of their length; they are all burrowing animals, penetrating the hardest substances. The shells are usually elongated, gaping at one or both ends, and closed by 2 adductor muscles; the foot is large and powerful, and the mantle is closed; they are found in all climates. The typical genus pholas is often of considerable size, with a white, hard, rough, but very brittle shell, rendering it an interesting question how it can perforate a solid rock; the operation in this case is supposed to be performed by a rotatory motion of the shell effected by the powerful foot. The date shell (P. dactylus, Linn.), about 2 inches long and 6 or 7 wide, is found along the European coast, mostly in calcareous rocks it is eaten along the Mediterranean. The P. candida (Linn.), a much smaller species, is extensively used for bait on the coast of Devonshire. The P. costata (Linn.), a large species from the West Indies, is sold for food in the markets of Havana. The P. crispata (Linn.), much smaller, is found along the coasts of our middle and southern states. Many fossil species are known. The family of veneracea, of the same group, are also stone borers, principally by means of the foot.-Among the asiphonate bivalves, the most remarkable stone borer is the lithodomus lithophagus (Cuv.); it is commonly found in holes which it has excavated in calcareous and coral formations; it is the sea

wide and 1,009 feet in circumference, and approached by a straight avenue similarly formed 594 yards long, divided into two branches at its outer extremity. There are other earthworks and numerous ancient barrows or burial mounds in the neighborhood. In the centre of the work is a massive slab of fine sandstone, supposed to have been an altar. Among the ruins have been found the relics of human bodies, and of oxen, deer, and other animals.-Stonehenge has given rise to much speculation and discussion among the learned in regard to its origin and purposes. History throws no light upon the subject. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, it was erected by order of Aurelianus Ambrosius, the last British king, in honor of 460 Britons slain by Hengist the Saxon; but Polydore Vergil argues that it was a monument to the memory of that king. Inigo Jones believed it to have been a Roman temple, and Rickman attributes it to the postRoman period. Dr. Charleton conjectured that it was built by the Danes during their temporary possession of Wiltshire. The theory best sustained by antiquaries and most plausible is that it was a druidic temple.

STONINGTON, a town and port of entry in New London co., Conn., at the E. extremity of Long Island sound, 63 m. E. from New Haven, and 50 m. S. S. W. from Providence; pop. in 1860, 7,740. It is built upon a peninsula nearly a mile long, and has a commodious harbor protected by a breakwater. It has a flourish ing coasting trade, and was formerly largely engaged in whale fishing. On June 30, 1860, its shipping amounted in the aggregate to 19,587 tons, of which 7,305 tons were registered, and 12,282 enrolled and licensed; and 2,484 tons were engaged in whale fishing, 10,063 in the coasting trade, and 1,741 in the cod fisheries. There are 3 banks, a savings bank, a newspaper, 12 churches, and a number of manufactories of various kinds. The New Haven and Stonington railroad connects it with New Haven and New York, and the Stonington and Providence railroad with Providence and Boston.-The town was settled in 1649, and incorporated in 1807. On Aug. 9, 1814, it was attacked by the British fleet under Sir Thomas Hardy, and during that and the next day several attempts were made to land; but the militia speedily gathered and compelled the enemy to retire.

STONY POINT, a small rocky promontory on the right bank of the Hudson river, in Orange co., N. Y., 42 m. N. from New York, at the entrance of the highlands, and opposite Verplanck's Point. On both these points forts were built by the Americans during the revolution, which were captured by Sir Henry Clinton, June 1, 1779, strengthened, and strongly garrisoned; but that on Stony Point was retaken by a bold night attack under Gen. Anthony Wayne, with 550 men, July 16, and the garrison of 543 officers and men made prison

ers.

The Americans had 15 killed and 83

wounded, and the British 63 killed. The simultaneous attack on Verplanck's Point having failed, the works on Stony Point were destroyed and abandoned on the 18th.

STOPPAGE IN TRANSITU, in law, the arresting by the seller of goods on their passage to a distant purchaser who has become insolvent. Though the right to do this originated with and is still most frequently exercised in respect to water-borne goods, yet it is well settled that it applies as well in the case of goods carried by land. When and how the doctrine of stoppage in transitu became a part of our law cannot be definitely asserted. As to the time, its introduction was comparatively recent; as to the mode, it may have been in either of three ways: 1, by adoption from the continental law of that principle of the law of sales which considers that the right of property (the jus in re) does not pass to the buyer until he has possession of the goods, so that the seller continues to own the goods until they reach the buyer; 2, by supposing that the seller had, until the goods reached the buyer, a right to rescind the sale for non-payment, provided the buyer became insolvent, and that the act of stoppage in transitu was an exercise of the right. This last was at one time rather a favorite view, but the prevailing course of adjudication in the United States is decidedly against it. The third way is by considering that the common law doctrine of the seller's lien for the price on the goods sold so long as he has them in his possession, continues in force after they have left his possession, and until they have reached that of the buyer; or, in other words, that the goods are considered constructively in the possession of the seller until the buyer has actual possession. Perhaps a combination of the first and third of these ways will best account for the right of stoppage in transitu as it exists in the English and our own law; that is to say, the rule of the civil or continental law, recommending itself by its reason and justice, established itself in the law merchant. When, as a part of that system, it came to the observation of the English courts, they recognized its reasonableness, and sought to support it by some familiar principle of the English law. This they found in the law of lien and in the continued constructive possession of the seller; and upon this law, and adopting its general principles, they founded the law of stoppage in transitu.-The right exists only between a buyer and a seller. A surety for the price of the goods, bound to pay for them if the buyer does not, has not this right; but every one who is substantially a seller has. Thus, one ordered by a foreign correspondent to buy goods for him, and then buying them in his own name and on his own credit, and sending them as ordered, may stop them in transitu. So may a principal who sends goods to his factor, or one who remits money for any particular purpose. The reception and negotiation of a bill for the goods does