potash, or, better, of the ferridcyanide of potassium, is to be moved once or twice over the moistened spot, when the characteristic reactions will be observed in case of the presence of strychnia. Instead of using an oxidizing body, Dr. Letheby brings out the blue color from the spot evaporated to dryness on a piece of platinum foil, and moistened with sulphuric acid, by connecting the foil with the positive pole of a single cell of Grove's or Smee's battery, and the acid with the negative pole. This method is not found so satisfactory by Dr. Reese, for several reasons, as that already given. Both of them fail when morphia in equal or larger quantities than the strychnia has been added to the mixture of organic substances. Another method of detecting the presence of strychnia is by what is known as the frog test. If the body and hind legs of a frog are immersed in a strychnia solution, tetanic spasms ensue on the absorption of an exceedingly small portion of the poison; the same effect follows the injection of a few drops through the œsophagus, or into the tissue of the thorax or abdomen. The smallest sized frogs should be selected, not more than 1 inches long or of 50 grains weight. A frog weighing 29 grains treated for half an hour by the first method, in a solution containing one grain of strychnia to 3 gallons of water (each drop consequently representing of a grain), exhibited decided convulsions and suddenly died. This test, in connection with the color test and the extreme bitterness of strychnia solutions, is regarded as abundantly sufficient to determine the presence of the alkaloid. The frog test is particularly valuable because it is scarcely affected, if at all, by the presence of morphia.

STRYPE, JOHN, an English divine and author, born in London, Nov. 12, 1643, died Dec. 13, 1737. He was educated at St. Paul's school and at Cambridge, and in 1669 became minister of Low Leyton in Essex, where he continued until a few years previous to his death. His principal works are: "Memorials of the most renowned Father in God, Thomas Cranmer, sometime Lord Archbishop of Canterbury" (fol., 1694); "The Life of the Learned Sir Thomas Smith" (8vo., 1698); “Historical Collections relating to the Life and Acts of Bishop Aylmer" (8vo., 1701); "Annals of the Reformation" (4 vols. fol., 1709-'31); and "Ecclesiastical Memoirs" (3 vols. fol., 1721). He published an edition of Stow's "Survey of London" (2 vols. fol., 1720), though Stow's matter was but little more than a nucleus for his own accumulations in antiquarian research. His works were reprinted at Oxford (29 vols. 8vo., 1822-'8), affording very valuable documents for the ecclesiastical history of England.

STUART, the name of a royal family of Scotland and England. The origin of the family is involved in some obscurity; but according to tradition, Fleanchus, son of Banquo, on the murder of his father by Macbeth, fled

into Wales in 1055, where he married a daughter of a chief named Griffithar Llewellyn; the son of Fleanchus, Walter I. (died 1113), returned to Scotland, and became steward of the household of Malcolm III., which office was made hereditary in his family, and from which the surname Stuart was derived. Walter was succeeded by his son Alan, he by another Walter, 3d high steward, and he by Alexander, who in 1199 was slain in a battle with the Danes, and left his office to his son Walter III., who conspired against King Alexander II., and was subsequently poisoned by his wife Alda of Dembe. Walter's son and successor Alexander was regent during the minority of Alexander III. His son James was regent after the death of that king, and died in 1309. Walter III., who succeeded his father, married Marjory, daughter of Robert Bruce, in 1315, upon whom, in failure of the birth of an heir male to her father, the crown was settled by act of parliament at Ayr, April 26, 1315. Marjory died in giving birth to Robert, afterward Robert II. of Scotland; but David II., son of Robert Bruce by a second marriage, came to the throne in 1324 as a minor, and after a succession of regencies Robert the Stewart, in conjunction with the earl of Moray, became regent in 1334, having already distinguished himself in the battle of Halidon, when, though but 16 years of age, he commanded a division of the Scottish army. In 1335, the earl of Moray having been taken prisoner by the English, he concluded a treaty with Edward III. of England. In 1338 he was appointed sole regent, which office terminated in 1341 by the king's majority. In 1346, David being taken prisoner, he was again elected regent, and held the position till 1357, when David was released. On the death of David in 1370 he was unanimously declared king with the title of Robert II. The licentiousness of this monarch, the doubts of the legitimacy of the children of his first wife, and the chronic state of war with Great Britain, made his reign and that of his son Robert III. harassing and unfortunate for the people. Robert II. died in 1390, and Robert III. in 1406. The succeeding monarchs of the line (all of whom are treated in separate articles) were James I., assassinated in 1437; James II., who died a violent death in 1460; James III., murdered in 1488; James IV., slain in the battle of Flodden in 1513; James V., son of the preceding and of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. of England, died in 1542; Mary, executed in England in 1587; her son James VI., who succeeded Queen Elizabeth as James I. of England, and died in 1625; Charles I., executed in 1649; Charles II., died in 1685; James II., who was expelled from the kingdom in 1888, and died in 1701, and was the last reigning male member of the family, though his daughter Mary, wife of William of Orange, came to the throne as queen regnant with her husband, and his second daughter Anne succeeded her in 1702, reigning till her death in

1714. The only son of James II., James Francis Edward Stuart, was a pretender to the throne of England, and died in Rome in 1766. His son Charles Edward Stuart (born in 1720, died in 1788), was a second pretender to the English throne. Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, brother of Charles Edward, was the last of the male line of the family, and with his death in 1807 it became extinct. Its chief branches in the female line are the houses of Savoy and Orleans and the duke of Modena, all descended from Henrietta Maria, daughter of Charles I., of which king the duke of Modena is the lineal representative, being thus, but for the act of settlement, heir to the crown of England. (See CHARLES EDWARD, JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD, and STUART, H. B. M. C.).

STUART, GILBERT, a Scottish author, born in Edinburgh in 1742, or according to some authorities in 1746, died in Musselburgh, Aug. 13, 1786. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, where he studied jurisprudence and general literature, and in 1767 published a "Historical Disquisition concerning the Antiquity of the British Constitution," which procured him the degree of LL.D. Encouraged by the success of his next work, a "View of Society in Europe in its Progress from Rudeness to Refinement" (1768), he made application for the vacant professorship of public law in the university of Edinburgh; and failing in this, on account of his character for dissipation, he repaired to London, and for several years was a contributor to the "Monthly Review." Returning to Edinburgh in 1773, he started, in conjunction with William Smellie, the "Edinburgh Magazine and Review," which for 4 years was made the vehicle of savage strictures from his pen on prominent Scottish authors. This embittered spirit is observable in his next work, "Observations concerning the Public Law and Constitutional History of Scotland (8vo., Edinburgh, 1779), an attack on Dr. Robertson, whom he especially hated. In 1780 he published a "History of the Establishment of the Reformation of Religion in Scotland" (4to., London), and in 1782 a "History of Scotland from the Reformation to the Death of Queen Mary" (2 vols. 8vo., London), in which he again attacked Robertson, whose aspersions against the character of the Scottish queen he zealously repelled. This is considered his ablest performance. For several years subsequent to 1782 he lived in London, contributing articles written in his characteristic vein to the "Political Herald" and the "English Review," of which John Murray was the proprietor; and a few months previous to his death he returned to Scotland.

STUART, GILBERT CHARLES, an American painter, born in Narraganset, R. I., in 1756, died in Boston in July, 1828. He received his first instructions from a Scottish painter named Alexander, by whom, when about 18 years of age, he was taken to Edinburgh. His master dying soon after their arrival in that city, he VOL. XV.-10

returned to America, working his passage home, it is said, before the mast, and commenced practice as a portrait painter at Newport, R. I. He removed thence successively to Boston and New York; but finding the war of the revolution a hopeless obstacle to his prospects, he set sail in 1778 for London, where for a couple of years he led an irregular life, making little progress toward establishing a reputation, and often at a loss for actual necessaries. Having finally been introduced to Benjamin West, then at the height of his fame and influence, he received from him valuable assistance in money and instruction, and for several years resided in his family. These attentions were warmly acknowledged by Stuart, who painted a full-length portrait of his benefactor, which is now in the British national gallery. About 1781 he commenced practice in London on his own account, and soon rose to great eminence as a portrait painter, rivalling Reynolds and the best English artists of the day in that department. Among his numerous sitters were George III., the prince of Wales, the earl of St. Vincent, the duke of Northumberland, Sir Joshua Reynolds, John Kemble, Col. Barré, Alderman Boydell, and many other distinguished persons. Subsequently he resided successively in Dublin and Paris, and in the latter city painted a portrait of Louis XVI. Returning to America in 1793, he proceeded, after a short stay in New York, to Philadelphia, for the purpose of painting the portrait of Washington. The first picture he destroyed; but at the second sitting he succeeded in producing the well known head from which he painted all his other portraits of Washington, and which has long been regarded as the standard likeness. The original study, together with a head of Mrs. Washington, is now in the possession of the Boston Athenæum. After residing several years in Washington, he took up his permanent abode in 1806 in Boston, where he continued in the active practice of his art until his death. His last work was a portrait of John Quincy Adams, which was finished by Sully. He had previously painted John Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and most of the distinguished characters of the revolution and of the early period of the Union. His portraits of persons in private life are most numerous in Boston and its neighborhood, and these, like all his works, have lost nothing of their freshness or brilliancy through lapse of time. As a painter of heads he holds the first place among American painters, if we except Copley, and his flesh coloring rivals the finest efforts of any modern school. Upon the extremities of his figures, the draperies, and other accessories, he bestowed little labor, and they are sometimes finished in the most slovenly manner. He was superior to almost every other painter, according to Washington Allston, in "the faculty of distinguishing between the conventional expression which belongs to manners, and that

more subtle indication of the individual mind. It was this which enabled him to animate his canvas not with the appearance of mere general life, but with that peculiar distinctive life which separates the humblest individual from his kind." Stuart was a man of fine social qualities, and a most accomplished talker. STUART, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT, Cardinal York, the last male representative of the Stuart family, born in Rome in 1725, died in Venice in 1807. He was the younger brother of the pretender Charles Edward, whom he was preparing to aid with a body of French troops assembled at Dunkirk, when the overthrow of the Jacobites at Culloden ruined the Stuart cause in Britain. He subsequently took orders in the Roman Catholic church, and in 1747 was appointed by Benedict XIV. a cardinal. On the death of his brother in 1788 he assumed the title of king of England as Henry IX., gratia Dei, non voluntate hominum, as the medal which he caused to be struck on the occasion declared. He was subsequently obliged to take refuge from French invasion in Venice, and during the last years of his life was dependent upon the British court for the means of subsistence.

STUART, JAMES, sometimes called Athenian Stuart, an English antiquary and architect, born in London in 1713, died Feb. 2, 1788. In early life he was a painter of fans, a branch of art then greatly in vogue, and to which he devoted himself until about 1742. For several years subsequent to this he resided in Rome, and in 1750 he accompanied Nicholas Revett on an antiquarian tour to Greece, remaining in Athens from March, 1751, to the close of 1753. Returning to London in 1755, he set about the preparation, in conjunction with his fellow traveller, of a work on the "Antiquities of Athens," of which the 1st volume appeared in 1762, and the 2d and 3d posthumously in 1790-'94. Subsequent to his return to England, Stuart was much employed in London as an architect.

STUART, JOIN, Earl of Bute. See BUTE. STUART, MOSES, an American divine and author, born at Wilton, Conn., March 26, 1780, died at Andover, Mass., Jan. 4, 1852. He was graduated at Yale college in 1799, was employed for some time as a teacher, studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802, and for the two succeeding years was a tutor in Yale college. He afterward studied theology, and was ordained pastor of the first Congregational church of New Haven, March 5, 1806. In 1809 he was appointed professor of sacred literature in the theological seminary at Andover, which office he held until 1848, when he resigned in consequence of the advancing infirmities of age. Beside 11 or 12 occasional sermons, and some other minor works, he published a "Grammar of the Hebrew Language without Points" (1813); "Letters to the Rev. William E. Channing containing Remarks on his Sermon recently preached and published in Baltimore" (1819);

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a "Grammar of the Hebrew Language with Points" (1821); "Letters to Dr. Miller on the Eternal Generation of the Son of God” (1822); Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews" (2 vols. 8vo., 1827-'8); "Hebrew Chrestomathy" (1829); "Essay on the Question whether the use of Distilled Liquors or Traffic in them is compatible at the present time with making a Profession of Christianity" (1830); "Letters to Dr. Channing on Religious Liberty" (1830); "Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans" (1832); "The Mode of Christian Baptism prescribed in the New Testament" (1833); “A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect" (2d ed., improved, 1834); "Hints on the Prophecies" (2d ed., 1842); "Commentary on the Apocalypse" (1845); a "Letter to the Editor of the North American Review on Hebrew Grammar" (1847); "A Scriptural View of the Wine Question" (1848); a "Commentary on Daniel" (1850); "Conscience and the Constitution" (1851); a แ Commentary on Ecclesiastes" (1851); and a "Commentary on Proverbs" (1852). Professor Stuart was distinguished for great quickness and versatility of mind, indomitable perseverance, noble and generous impulses, and an enthusiastic interest in every subject that engaged his attention.

STUCCO (Ital.), a name applied to the hard external finish given to the coat of plaster upon walls, sometimes consisting of fine lime and sand without hair, hand-floated twice and well trowelled (see PLASTERING); but the term is more, properly applied to a hard finish prepared of a mixture of ground marble or chalk, with pure lime as a cement, in such proportions and so worked as to produce a durable and uniform surface susceptible of polish. This sort is adapted for covering walls and internal decorations; but for external work the mixture is made of coarser materials and with cements adapted to withstand the weather. Pulverized alabaster or gypsum is sometimes used instead of marble, mixed with rich lime, carefully slaked and sifted, and then trowelled on to a rough coat until the surface is perfectly smooth. A solution of gelatine or strong glue or gum arabic is sometimes used instead of water to render the preparation more durable, and metallic oxides are added to produce desirable tints. The cements or stuccoes known in England as Keene's, Martin's, and Parian are made of plaster of Paris, mixed with a saturated solution either of alum, sulphate of potash, or borax, then dried in the air, and baked at a dull red heat. The preparation is pulverized and sifted, and is finally slaked with a solution of alum. Martin's is made with pearlash as well as alum, and is baked at a higher heat than the others. When the surface is perfectly dry, it may be polished by rubbing with fine grit stones, followed by tripoli powder, chalk, and oil. The application described in the article SCAGLIOLA is a variety of stucco.

STUHL-WEISSENBURG (Hung. Székes Fejérvár), a town of Hungary, capital of the

county of the same name, situated on the left bank of the Csorgó, near the border of an extensive morass, 38 m. S. S. W. from Buda; pop. 22,600. The principal buildings are the cathedral and the episcopal palace. There are manufactures of woollen and linen goods, hardware, and several other articles. The kings of Hungary were formerly crowned here, and the cathedral contains many of their tombs.

STURGEON, the name given to the cartilaginous fishes of the class of ganoids and family sturionide. The body is elongated and fusiform, covered with a rough skin protected by 5 longitudinal rows of tubercular plates; the largest of these rows is along the back, and there is also one on each side, and one from each pectoral to the ventral fins; the plates are flattened, and marked with radiating striæ. The head is depressed, and ends in a long triangular snout covered with bony plates; mouth funnel-shaped and protrusible, on the under surface, without teeth, having in front a few depending barbels, evidently organs of touch; gill covers very large and gills free; pseudo-branchiæ and spiracles are present, but no branchiostegal rays; fins well developed, the dorsal and anal opposite and behind the ventrals; tail heterocercal or unsymmetrical, the vertebral cord being prolonged into the upper lobe as in the sharks, and strengthened by fulcra along its upper margin; a soft caudal on the under surface of the tail. The vertebral column consists of an undivided soft chorda dorsalis; the air bladder is very large, communicating freely with the oesophagus; there is a spiral valve in the intestine, and a conglomerate pancreas. They are generally of large size, inhabiting the northern temperate seas of both coasts of America, eastern Europe, and western Asia, from which they ascend the rivers in spring for the purpose of spawning, returning to the salt water in autumn; species are also found in the great American fresh water lakes, which never descend to the sea. They are oviparous; the food consists of any soft substances which they stir up from the bottom with their snouts, and of small fish; they have a habit of jumping out of water, generally considered for mere sport, but most likely to disengage from their gills and bodies the lampreys which eat into their flesh.-The genus acipenser (Linn.) has the characters of the family. The common sturgeon of Europe (A. sturio, Linn.) attains a length of 6 to 10 feet, and sometimes more; it is found in the Caspian and Black seas and the rivers opening into them, and sometimes on the coasts of Great Britain and the Baltic; the flesh is delicate, compared to veal, and was in old times considered a royal dish; it was served with great pomp in ancient Greece and Rome, but in modern days is held in far less esteem; still it is largely consumed in Russia, fresh, salted, and pickled. A larger species, also found in the seas and rivers of S. E. Europe, is the beluga (A. huso, Linn.), attaining a length of 12

to 15 feet and a weight of 1,200 lbs., and occasionally of much larger size; it ascends the rivers opening into the Caspian and Black seas, with other and smaller species. The flesh is tough and of inferior quality; the sound or air bladder furnishes an abundant supply of isinglass, for which great numbers are caught in Russia. (See GELATINE, vol. viii. p. 123.) Caviare is also made from the roe of the female, which sometimes constitutes of the weight of the fish; the skin is used for harness leather, and the dorsal cord, cut in pieces and dried, is used as food. The sterlet (A. Ruthenus, Linn.), found in the Caspian, and growing to a length of 2 or 3 feet, furnishes a most delicate food and the best caviare. Some idea of the commercial importance of this fishery may be gathered from the fact that in 1829, in the Caspian sea alone, about 8,800 persons were employed, obtaining 786,000 sturgeons, yielding 28,500 lbs. of caviare and 1,100 lbs. of isinglass; the fish are taken in nets as they go up to spawn. The color in these species is brown of various shades, the plates whitish, and the abdomen silvery.-In North America sturgeons do not inhabit the rivers flowing into the Arctic ocean, and are not found north of the watersheds between lat. 53° and 54° N., where the mean annual temperature is about 33° F.; they seldom enter clear cold streams, but ascend muddy rivers in such numbers that many large Indian tribes subsist entirely on their flesh in summer; each watershed has its own species, varying in some minor characters. The sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus, Mitch.) attains a length of from 3 to 7 feet; it is found on the coasts of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; it is common in Long Island sound from the middle of June to October, and is taken by harpoon and in nets; the smaller specimens are esteemed for the table; it is grayish brown above, silvery on the sides, and white below. The lake sturgeon (A. rubicundus, Lesueur) is olive brown above, white below, with the fins reddish; it attains a length of 4 feet, and is found in the great lakes and in the Ohio river. The short-nosed sturgeon (A. brevirostris, Mitch.) is dusky above and white below; the snout is short and blunt; it attains a length of 2 to 5 feet, and is so common in the Hudson that its flesh in the market has been known as Albany beef; it much resembles the A. sturio of Europe. Other species are described from the northern waters, the rivers of the N. W. coast, and from Lake Superior, by Richardson and Agassiz.-The genus polyodon (Lacép.) or spatularia (Shaw) has the general form of acipenser, but is without the bony plates on the body and head; the snout is very much elongated, and compressed into a thin leaf-like organ, partly bony and partly cutaneous, sometimes nearly as long as the body; gill covers very large, extending far back in a membranous point; the mouth is wide, with numerous minute teeth in the young

animal, which are lost with age. The spoonbill sturgeon (P. folium, Lacép.) is steel-blue above and white below; it attains a length of 5 feet, and is found in the Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries; it is also called shovel fish and paddle fish; the flesh is occasionally eaten, but is rather tough; the singularly shaped snout is used to shovel up the mud in search of food. The genus platirostra (Les.) is probably only the adult of polyodon, the principal difference being the absence of teeth. STURLESON. See SNORRO STURLESON. STURM, JOHANN, a German philologist, born at Schleiden, now in Rhenish Prussia, Oct. 1, 1507, died in Strasbourg, March 3, 1589. He studied at Liége in the college of St. Jerome, and in 1524 went to Louvain, where he spent 5 years, and, in partnership with Rudiger Rescius, established a press, and printed some Greek works. In 1529 he went to Paris, and there read public lectures on Greek and Latin writers and on logic; and thence in 1537 to Strasbourg to become rector of its newly established gymnasium, which, under his administration for 45 years, acquired great celebrity, and in 1566 was converted into a university. The system of education introduced by him, aiming chiefly at thorough Latin scholarship, exerted great influence throughout Germany, and was the model of that adopted by the Jesuits. He was several times employed by government in a diplomatic capacity. He was a Lutheran, but liberal to all who suffered for religious opinions, and was by the persecution of stricter sectarians finally driven from the head of his school. His works are very numerous, and are principally devoted to the elucidation of classic authors. His work on a system of education, De Literarum Ludis recte aperiendis Liber (4to., Strasbourg, 1538), has been several times reprinted.

STUTTGART, a town of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Würtemberg, situated on the river Nesen, a tributary of the Neckar, 38 m. E. S. E. from Carlsruhe and 97 m. S. E. from Frankfort; pop. in 1858, 51,655. It stands in a very beautiful valley surrounded by vine-clad hills, with well wooded mountains in the distance. The town is encircled by a wall and ditch, is entered by 8 gates, and consists of two parts, the ancient and modern, with two suburbs. In the chief square is a fine old Gothic church with a high tower, and many ancient sculptures and monuments of the princes of Würtemberg. The royal palace, begun in 1746 and finished in 1806, is a large building of freestone splendidly decorated and furnished in the interior; and the old palace, completed in 1570, resembles a feudal castle, and is now occupied by officials connected with the government. In the same square is a monument to Schiller by Thorwaldsen. The hospital church is a Gothic building, finely decorated in the interior, and contains the grave of Reuchlin. The town hall was built in the 15th century. The other public

buildings and institutions of importance are the museum of natural history; a library of 200,000 volumes and 3,220 MSS.; a cabinet of medals containing about 17,000 specimens; a museum of the fine arts, with many valuable statues and pictures; a bazaar, and a theatre. Stuttgart has a gymnasium, military academy, polytechnic school, school of art, numerous schools, hospitals, asylums, and other charitable institutions, and extensive barracks and government offices. The manufactures include woollen, silk, linen, and cotton goods, jewelry, musical and philosophical instruments, leather, and tin ware. The book trade is extensively carried on, and connected with it are numerous paper mills, type founderies, lithographic establishments, and printing offices. The town has railway communication with all the principal places of Europe, and the Neckar is navigable. A considerable trade is carried on in different manufactured articles, and bark. In the vicinity are numerous parks and gardens, where the public are admitted, including Rosenstein, the summer palace of the king; and Kannstadt, about 3 miles distant, is resorted to by the citizens and visitors as a favorite watering place.-Stuttgart is a very ancient town, but the date of its foundation is not known. It suffered severely during the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. Though repeatedly occupied by both sides during the wars of Napoleon, it escaped with little loss.

STUYVESANT, PETRUS, the last Dutch director-general of New Netherlands (New York), born in Holland in 1602, died in New York in Aug. 1682. He served in the war in the West Indies, became director of the colony of Curaçoa, and, having lost a leg in an unsuccessful attack on the Portuguese island of St. Martin, returned to Holland in 1644. In 1645 he was appointed by the Dutch West India company director-general of New Netherlands, succeeding William Kieft, whose conduct had involved the settlers in a bloody war with the Indians, and created general disorder in the colony. He did not arrive till May, 1647, when he commenced a vigorous and often arbitrary administration, conciliating the savages and restoring order in every department. In 1650 he arranged at Hartford with the New England commissioners a line of partition between the Dutch and English territories, which had previously been undefined and a cause of frequent disputes. He was also involved in trouble with the Swedes on the south. In 1651 the Dutch built Fort Casimir on the Delaware, which was captured by Rising, the governor of New Sweden, in 1654. To revenge this wrong, Stuyvesant in 1655, with 7 vessels and between 600 and 700 men, sailed into the Delaware, and made a conquest of the whole settlement. Ten years of peace followed, disturbed only by the growing jealousy of the English, and by the civil discontents which the arbitrary character of Stuyvesant's administration tended somewhat to inspire. In 1653 a convention of the people,