consisting of two deputies from each village in New Netherlands, had met and demanded that "no new laws shall be enacted but with the consent of the people; that none shall be appointed to office but with the approbation of the people; that obscure and obsolete laws shall never be revived." This assembly was dissolved by the governor, who commanded the members to separate on pain of punishment, telling them in his farewell message: "We derive our authority from God and the company, not from a few ignorant subjects." The spirit of resistance nevertheless increased, and was fostered by the large number of English settlers who had come to reside within the limits of New Netherlands. The encroachments of the New England colonies at last induced Stuyvesant himself to repair to Boston and lay his remonstrances before the convention of the united colonies, which met with but little favor; and a second embassy to Hartford had no better success. The Connecticut agents made exorbitant claims to territory by virtue of the royal patent. "In case there was another royal patent," said the Dutch commissioners, "between where would New Netherlands then lie ?" "We know of no New Netherlands, unless you can show a patent for it from his majesty," was the cool reply. In 1664 Charles II. granted to his brother, the duke of York, the territory from the Connecticut river to the shores of the Delaware, and an English fleet under Richard Nicolls appeared in the bay in August and demanded the surrender of the city. Stuyvesant was unwilling to capitulate, but the municipality, seeing the futility of resistance, insisted on yielding. After holding out for a short time, the governor at last consented, and the city was given up on Sept. 3, 1664. After the capture Stuyvesant went in 1665 to report to his superiors in Holland, and afterward returned, spending the remainder of his life on his farm or bouwerij (whence the name of the street called the Bowery), then outside the limits of the city. He lies buried in the vaults of St. Mark's church in 10th street.

STY (Lat. hordeolum, from hordeum, barley), a small inflammatory tumor on the edge of the eyelid, about the size of a grain of barley. Sty has its seat in the cellular tissue at the margin of the lid, involving generally the roots of one or more of the eyelashes. The tumor is furuncular in character, and almost invariably goes on to suppuration; its progress is sometimes tedious and the suppuration imperfect. Sty is most common in persons of a strumous habit, and often has for an exciting cause derangement of the digestive organs. By attending to the condition of these organs the recurrence of the disease may be most generally prevented. When the little tumor has made its appearance, it is best to promote its maturation by warm and emollient fomentations. It is commonly advisable to leave it to burst of itself; but when maturation has occurred, if it occasion much uneasiness, it may be punctured.

STYLE, OLD AND NEW. See CALENDAR. STYLITES (Gr. σruλirns, belonging to a pillar), SIMEON, a Syrian who lived in the first half of the 5th century, known in church history for having inaugurated a new kind of asceticism. He left his convent, and for 9 years lived under the open sky on a pillar, the top of which was only 2 cubits in circumference. Finally he ascended a pillar 20 yards in height, on which he lived for 30 years, and preached with remarkable effect to the crowds who gathered around him. The people of Antioch received his body into their city, and revered him as their patron saint. His example found several imitators in the East until the 12th century. In the West asceticism of this kind was little encouraged by the ecclesiastical authorities.

STYRIA (Ger. Steiermark), a duchy and crown land of Austria, bounded by Upper and Lower Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Carniola, Carinthia, and Saltzburg; area, 8,664 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 1,056,773. It is divided into the circles of Gratz, which contains the capital of the same name, Marburg, and Bruck. A great part of the surface is mountainous, being traversed by three chains belonging to the Noric branch of the Alpine system, the highest summits of which are on the N. W. and S. W. frontiers, their culminating points, Grossenberg and Eisenhut, being respectively 8,381 and 7,676 feet above the sea. In the S. and E. part the mountains are of moderate height, and some of them separated by extensive valleys. The N. W. part is known as Upper Styria, and the country in the opposite direction as Lower Styria. The surface belongs to the basin of the Danube, toward which the drainage flows by numerous tributaries; the most important of these are the Mur, Enns, Raab, Save, and Drave, all of which, except the Raab, are navigable for boats. There are numerous small lakes, but none of any considerable size, and several cold, hot, and mineral springs. Limestone, sulphur, alum, rock salt, gold, silver, lead, copper, cobalt, zinc, and iron ore of superior quality, are all found. In the more elevated districts the climate is cold, but in the valleys it is mild and agreeable. The soil in the valleys is generally fertile, but the grain produced is barely sufficient for the consumption of the population. The vine thrives well in the valleys and on lower slopes. The mountains are generally clothed to their summits with timber, and the forests cover about half the surface. The inhabitants are mostly of German origin, but the Slavic Vindes or Sloventzi are also numerous; nearly all are Roman Catholics. Iron is extensively manufactured, and some of the mines were known to the Romans. Some linen, cotton, woollen, and silk goods are also manufactured; but the most important branch of industry is the felling and rafting of timber. Several millions of jews-harps are annually exported. An important transit trade between Italy and Germany is carried on, and is greatly facilitated by good roads, and by the Vienna

and Trieste railway, which crosses the Semmering mountains.-Under the Romans the eastern part of Styria belonged to the province of Pannonia, and the western to Noricum. Christianity was introduced in the 4th century, but the northern barbarians afterward overran the province. Styria was annexed to Austria in 1192, was subsequently attached to Bohemia, and wrested from King Ottocar II. by Rudolph I. of Hapsburg, a possession of which house it has since remained.

STYX (connected with Gr. σruyew, to hate, abhor), in Greek mythology, the chief river of the lower world, around which it flows 7 times. The name was said to be derived from the nymph Styx, the daughter of Oceanus, who, when Jupiter prepared to wrest the power from the hands of Saturn and the Titans, was the first of the immortals to answer to his call, coming with her 4 sons to his assistance. For her readiness he made her children his constant attendants, and upon her he conferred the distinction of being the oath-sanctioner of the gods. When a god was about to take the oath, a cup of water from this stream was brought him by Iris, and while pouring out this he took the oath. In the Hesiodic theogony Styx is called the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the mother of Zelos (zeal), Nike (victory), Bia (strength), and Cratos (power).

SUABIA. See SWABIA.

SUAREZ, FRANCISCO, a Spanish scholastic theologian, born in Granada in 1548, died in Lisbon in 1617. He early entered the order of the Jesuits, was in succession professor at the universities of Alcala, Salamanca, Rome, and Coimbra, and one of the most prolific theological writers of his age. Benedict XIV. and Bossuet accounted him among the most learned theologians of their church, and Grotius called him a profound theologian and philosopher, with whom but few could be compared. His work, Defensio Fidei adversus Anglicano Sectæ Errores, was ordered by the parliament of Paris to be burned by the public executioner, because it claimed for the pope a coercive power over kings. The complete works of Suarez were published at Lyons, Mentz, and Venice, in 23 vols. fol., the last named edition in 1748, and a new edition is now (1862) in course of publication at Paris. The Jesuit Noël published extracts from them in 2 vols. fol. (Geneva, 1732). A life of Suarez was written by Deschamps (Perpignan, 1671).

SUBJECTIVE. See OBJECTIVE AND SUB

JECTIVE.

SUBLIMATION, a process of distillation in which the vapors condense in a solid form. It takes place naturally in volcanic fissures and craters, and the products, often of a sulphurous character, are deposited upon the walls. Deposits thus formed are termed sublimates. A great variety of mineral substances are subject to vaporize by heat and become solid again on cooling; and the number of such increases with the increased degree of heat which

we can apply. Some vegetable substances also possess the same property, as camphor, benzoic acid, &c. Sublimation is much employed in the arts and manufactures as a means of separating volatile from fixed bodies, usually for obtaining the former in a purer state. The vapor is sometimes chemically changed by contact with the oxygen of the air, and the sublimate is then of a different composition from the original body, as when oxide of zinc is produced by subjecting the metal or its ores to heat exposed to the air.

SUBLIME PORTE (Fr., lofty or magnificent gate), the title officially given to the Ottoman government, and also applied to the edifice in which state affairs are transacted. Orkhan (1326-'57), the first Turkish sultan who adopted the title padishah, erected a magnificent palace with an imposing entrance, on which he bestowed the name of "Sublime Porte," which from that time to the present has been applied to the monarch and government ruling there. This use of the term also had its origin partly perhaps in the oriental custom of transacting public business at the gate of the city or palace. SUBMERGED FORESTS. See FORESTS, SUBMERGED.

SUBPOENA, a judicial process directed to a witness commanding him to appear at the court, to testify what he knows in the case therein described, pending in the court, under a certain penalty (sub pana) mentioned in the process. If the court wishes to examine any books or papers which are in possession of the witness, a clause is inserted in the writ bidding him to bring them with him; and the subpoena is thence called a subpœna duces tecum. A subpœna ought always to be served at a reasonable time before the trial, in order that the witness who is summoned thereby may have time to arrange his affairs in contemplation of his absence, and may have convenient time to reach the court. The statutes generally regulate the matter, and usually require that for every certain number of miles distance, one day shall be added in estimating the time of service. The manner of service is also often prescribed by American statutes. In New York, for example, the mode of service is to show the subpoena to the party; to deliver to him a copy of the process, or a ticket containing the substance of it; and to pay or tender to him the amount allowed by law for travelling to and returning from the place at which he is required to attend, and his fees for one day's attendance. These fees for travel and daily attendance are also matter of express statutory provisions, and they differ in the different states. The subpoena ought to be served upon the witness personally, for otherwise he cannot be proceeded against as for a contempt if he neglects to appear. Service may be made by any person, and is proved generally by affidavit, or, if it be made by a sheriff or his officer, by a simple return or certificate of service. When a witness has been duly summoned, and his fees have been paid or

tendered, or payment or tender has been waived, he is guilty of a contempt of court if he fails to appear at the appointed time, and may be proceeded against by attachment. The process of attachment rests not on the ground of any actual damage resulting from the party's failure to appear, but is given for the vindication of the dignity of the court; and if it be clearly shown that the court's process was wilfully disobeyed by the witness, he is condemned to fine or imprisonment, or whatever other punishment is ordered by statute for the offence. In Massachusetts, and probably in other states, the party actually injured by the non-appearance of the party summoned has a statutory action for all damages caused by his default. The office of the subpoena at common law is simply to bring into court a witness whose evidence is sought. Chancery, borrowing the name of the writ, but giving it a far larger scope, issued it in order to compel a defendant in a cause to appear and answer upon oath the plaintiff's allegations. This sort of subpoena was invented or first used in chancery by John de Waltham, bishop of Salisbury, master of the rolls under Richard II.; the commons complained of his subtlety" "as contrary to the course of the common law." It was in fact the cause and subject of some of the loudest complaints against the chancery jurisdiction; but it was finally acquiesced in and became the most effective process of the chancery courts, and thereby the means of much of its beneficent action. The prayer for the subpoena is usually included in the closing clause of the bill, and asks that the defendant "may be required to appear, to answer the bill and to abide by the decree of the court."

SUBSCRIPTION, in law, a contract by which one agrees to contribute with others for a common purpose. The word is sometimes applied to the sum of money subscribed. The contract of subscription depends for its validity upon the same principles and facts as other contracts. The subscribers may be sued for their subscriptions whenever the conditions upon which they have promised to pay are fulfilled, if the purpose of the contract is a legal one, and founded upon a good consideration, and if there is a party capable of maintaining the action. Subscription papers, however, are often hastily drawn up and carelessly expressed; no party is named to whom the amounts subscribed are to be payable; it is merely agreed to contribute certain sams to a specified object, leaving the mode of collecting these sums to be afterward provided for; and the inducement to subscribe is commonly either a benevolent object or the hope of future profit, without any immediate legal consideration. In short, the difficulty in the way of enforcing contracts of subscription has arisen frequently, we may say indeed chiefly, from the want of proper parties and of a valid consideration for the promise. In their disposition to uphold this class of contracts, if they can be upheld consistently with the rules of

law, the courts have gone in some cases so far as to say that the subscribers to a common object may be treated as contracting with each other, the consideration of each subscription being the promises of the other contributors, each subscriber being thus liable to a suit by all the others. This doctrine however is against the weight of authority; and it may be regarded as pretty well settled that no action can be maintained on a subscription unless it is made in favor of some particular person or corporation in existence at the time, and capable of bring.ing a suit upon it. Thus it has been held that a subscription to the stock of a corporation to be afterward formed did not render the subscriber liable to a suit by the corporation after it had been chartered and organized. But where the subscription paper named a party who was to collect the sum subscribed, it was held that he might bring a suit against a subscriber. So when the paper provided that the money should be paid to a person to be appointed by the subscribers in a prescribed manner, it was held that such person, when so appointed, might sue on the subscriptions. And it has been held that a subscription for a good consideration, but which could not be sued for want of a party to whom the promise was made, may be the consideration for a promissory note payable to a party capable of bringing an action. There are many cases which hold that no action can be maintained upon a mere voluntary subscription for a charitable or other purpose, upon the ground that there was no legal consideration for the promise; and these cases would seem to be in accordance with the rule of law requiring an actual consideration for a promise in order to make it legally binding. There are other decisions, however, which undertake to raise a consideration from the promises of the other contributors; from the acts done and expenses incurred on the faith of the subscription; and from the express or implied promise or legal liability of the parties, in whose favor the subscription is made, to carry out its purposes. Where, by the express terms of the subscription, the promisee agrees to appropriate the funds to a particular object and in a particular way, upon the well settled principle of mutuality of contracts, his promise is a good consideration for that of the subscribers.. Whether, however, the merely legal and implied liability of a charitable corporation or board of trustees to appropriate the funds subscribed in accordance with the provisions of their charter or trust is a sufficient consideration, without an express promise in the subscription paper, to support an action on a subscription in their favor, is a question on which there is some conflict of opinion. Subscriptions which rest on an express contract by the promisee to do some act beneficial to the subscriber, are in fact but ordinary contracts.

SUCCORY. See CHICORY.

SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, a French general, born in Lyons, March 2, 1772, died in Mar

seilles, Jan. 3, 1826. He entered the national guard of Lyons in 1791 as 2d lieutenant of cavalry, became a chief of battalion, was present at the siege of Toulon in 1793, and was then transferred to the army of Italy. He received the rank of chief of brigade on the battle field at Neumark in April, 1797. He was selected as one of the commanders in the army of Egypt, but was detained by Brune as major-general in the army of Italy, in which he reëstablished order and discipline; afterward served as chief of staff under Masséna on the Danube, and again in Italy, where after Masséna took the command he was made general of division, and during the siege of Genoa, with a far inferior force, secured the capture of 15,000 Austrians with 6 standards and 33 cannon. He took part in the battle of Marengo and in the passage of the Mincio, and commanded the centre of the army of Italy at Bozzolo, Borghetto, Verona, and Montebello. In 1805 he commanded the left wing under Marshal Lannes at Austerlitz, and in 1806 took an important part in the battle of Jena. In 1808 he was made commander of a division in the army of Spain, and by his siege of Saragossa (1809), the taking of Lerida (1810), Tortosa and Tarragona (1811), and the occupation of Montserrat, won the baton of a marshal of the empire in 1811. He afterward took Oropesa, Murviedro, and Valencia, which place he entered Jan. 14, 1812, capturing 18,000 Spanish troops and immense stores, and was rewarded with the title of duke of Albufera and a large revenue. His justice and moderation gained him the affection of the Spaniards, and on the withdrawal of the French from Spain he left the country with honor. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France in 1814. He wrote Mémoires sur la guerre d'Espagne, 1808-1814 (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1829).

SUCKER, the popular name of the soft-rayed fishes of the carp family (cyprinida) included in the genus catostomus (Lesueur). They are characterized by a single dorsal, 3 rays in the gill membrane, smooth head and gill covers, jaws without teeth and retractile, mouth beneath the snout, and lips plaited or lobed suitable for sucking; there are comb-like teeth in the throat; the intestine is very long, and the air bladder divided into 2 or more parts. There are about 30 species in the fresh water rivers and lakes of North America; they feed on aquatic plants, worms, larvæ, and mollusks, and rarely take bait; they are very tenacious of life; the young are devoured by kingfishers, fish hawks, and carnivorous fishes. The common sucker (C. Bostoniensis, Les.) is 8 to 15 inches long, of a brownish color, olive on the head, reddish with metallic lustre on the sides, and white below; it is common in New England and the middle states. The chub sucker (C. gibbosus, Les.) is 7 to 12 inches long, dark brown above, golden greenish yellow on the sides, anterior part of abdomen whitish, and fins dark; body convex in front of dorsal, and

sides of head sometimes spiny or tuberculated; it is common in the ponds of the New England and middle states. The gray sucker (C. Hudsonius, Les.) is grayish above, and 18 to 21 inches long; it is found in rivers opening into Hudson's bay, in Columbia river and its tributaries, and in the fur countries. Other large species from the northern regions have been described by Richardson and Agassiz. Among the larger species of the western rivers are the Missouri sucker (C. elongatus, Les.), 2 to 3 feet long, in the Ohio river, black on the back, and hence called black horse and black buffalo; and the buffalo sucker (C. bubalus, Raf.), of about the same size, in the Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, and their tributaries, brownish above, bronzy on the sides, and whitish on abdomen. These and other species are frequently used as food in the West.

SUCKING FISH, the popular name of the remora, a spiny-rayed fish of the genus echeneis (Linn.), so named from the Greek exw, to hold, and vavs, a ship. This genus was placed by Cuvier among the malacopterygians, near the cod family; Müller ranked it among the discoboli (lump fishes), with the goby family; Agassiz considers it as belonging with the scomberoid or mackerel family. The body is elongated, tapering behind, covered with very small scales; there are 4 perfect branchiæ; very small teeth on jaws, vomer, and palate, crowded and hardly distinguishable posteriorly; mouth small and horizontal, the lower jaw the longer; eyes above the angles of the mouth; ventrals thoracic, narrow, united only at the base, and apparently not used for attaching the animal to submarine bodies; head flattened. Above the head and anterior dorsal vertebræ is an oval disk, presenting from the middle to both sides oblique transverse cartilaginous plates, arranged like the slats of a Venetian blind; on the middle of the under surface are spine-like projections connected by short bands with the skull and vertebra, and their upper margin is beset with fine teeth. According to De Blainville, this organ is an anterior dorsal fin, whose rays are split and expanded horizontally on each side instead of standing erect in the usual way. By means of this apparatus, partly suctorial and partly prehensile by the hooks, these fishes attach themselves to rocks, ships, and the bodies of other fishes, especially to sharks. The dorsal is opposite the anal, but the fins are weak, and these fishes accordingly adhere to sharks and other moving bodies, which transport them to places where food is abundant, and often from the tropics to temperate regions. There are 6 or 8 pyloric appendages, but no air bladder. The common sucking fish of the Mediterranean, so well known to the ancients (E. remora, Linn.), is from 12 to 18 inches long, shaped somewhat like a herring, dusky brown above and lighter below; it has 17 or 18 plates on the head; it occurs in the Atlantic ocean, on the British coasts, and has even wandered to the American