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and it was on his return to Quito from the session of that body that he was assassinated. SUDORIFICS. See DIAPHORETICS. SUE, EUGÈNE, a French novelist, born in Paris, Dec. 10, 1804, died in Annecy, Savoy, July 3, 1857. The son of a surgeon in the imperial guard, his sponsors at baptism were the empress Josephine and Prince Eugène Beauharnais. He studied medicine, and was early appointed assistant surgeon in the royal body guard. In 1823 he followed the French army to Spain, and saw the siege of Cadiz and the taking of the Trocadero; was afterward transferred to the medical service in the navy, and in 1827 was present at the battle of Navarino. Inheriting a competence on his father's death, he gave up his profession to devote himself to painting and literature. His first works were the sea novels Kernock le pirate (1830), Plick et Plock (1831), and Atar-Gull (1831), beside a number of shorter tales collected under the title of La Coucaratcha (4 vols. 8vo., 1832-4). These were printed at his own expense, and notwithstanding their immoral tendency and coarse style, their vivacity rendered them popular. An affectation of Byronic scepticism shone conspicuously in his Salamandre (1832), which met with decided success, and in his Vigie de Koatren (1833). In all these performances the author seems to delight in presenting vice triumphant and virtue persecuted and derided. Although ill prepared for such a task, he now appeared as a historian, and under the patronage of the government published the Histoire de la marine Française au 17 siècle (5 vols. 8vo., 1835-7), which was a failure. Cécile (1835), one of his best novels, was followed by Le marquis de Létorières (1839) and Jean Cavalier (1840). He now assumed the advocacy of socialistic ideas and of the improvement of the condition of the lower classes. This change did not appear clearly in Mathilde, ou mémoires d'une jeune femme (6 vols. 8vo., 1841), an affecting narrative in which vice meets with retribution, but shone conspicuously in Les mystères de Paris (10 vols. 8vo., 1842), a work which, though presenting terrible pictures of vice and corruption, was for a while the most popular novel ever published, numberless editions being issued in France, and translations appearing in nearly all the European languages. Le Juif errant (10 vols. 8vo., 1844-5) was still more objectionable, but was scarcely less successful on account of its being a merciless attack upon the Jesuits. These three novels respectively appeared at first in the Presse, the Journal des débats, and the Constitutionnel; they were followed by Martin, l'enfant trouvé (12 vols. 8vo., 1847) and Les sept péchés capitaux (16 vols. 8vo., 1847-'9). After the revolution of Feb. 1848, he undertook a serial work in which he held up aristocracy, monarchy, and the clergy to execration by narrating the sufferings of a proletarian family through ages, entitled Les mystères du peuple, which was continued from 1850 to 1856, and, being prosecuted for immo

SUEVI

rality and sedition, was suppressed in 1857. He wrote numerous other novels, and alone or in his works, but with indifferent success. In 1848 conjunction with others dramatized several of he was defeated as a candidate for the constituent assembly; but in 1850 was elected, after a lively contest, one of the deputies for the department of the Seine. He sat among the members of the mountain, but never spoke. On the coup d'état of Dec. 2, 1851, he was expelled from France, and retired to Annecy.

SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, CAIUS, a Roably in the latter part of the reign of the emman historian, born about A. D. 70, died probperor Hadrian. He was the son of a military tribune, and appears, through the influence of his friend the younger Pliny, to have obtained a similar office, which his love of letters induced him to transfer to a relative. Pliny subsequently helped him to become magister epis tolarum, an office of considerable importance in the imperial household, and which gave the incumbent many opportunities of examining the state archives. From this position he was removed by Hadrian in 119 in consequence of an indiscreet familiarity with the empress Sabina. The remainder of his life was probably devoted to literary pursuits, and from the list of his works given by Suidas he must have been one of the most voluminous of Roman authors.

His chief extant work is the Vito
treatises De Illustribus Grammaticis and. De
XII Cæsarum, in 8 books; beside which the
Claris Rhetoribus, and some brief biographies
of Terence, Horace, Lucan, Juvenal, Persius,
and Pliny the Elder, pass under his name.
His lives of the Cæsars are anecdotical rather
than historical, and their accuracy has been
impeached by Heisen, Linguet, and others, al-
though, as would appear from the researches
of Krause (De Suetonii Tranquilli Fontibus et
Auctoritate), without affecting their value in
illustrating the period of which they treat.
marked feature of the lives of the Cæsars is
the minuteness with which Suetonius relates
Α
the gross excesses of the emperors. His per-
sonal character, if Pliny may be believed, was
above reproach. The works of Suetonius long
enjoyed a considerable popularity, 15 editions
having been published previous to 1500, of
which the oldest with a date is that of Rome
(fol., 1470). Among the best subsequent edi-
tions are those of Burmann (2 vols. 4to., Am-
sterdam, 1736) and of Baumgarten-Crusius, by
Hase (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1828). The first Eng-
lish translation was by Philemon Holland (fol.,
London, 1606), and the latest by Thomson and
Forester (Bohn's "Classical Library," 1855).
SUEUR, LE. See LE SUEUR.

group of migratory German tribes, who about
SUEVI, the collective name of a powerful
ancient writers to have occupied the larger
the beginning of the Christian era are said by
half of all Germany. Cæsar describes them as
dwelling between the Ubii and Sygambri on the
W. and the Cherusci on the E.; that is, between

the Rhine and the Weser. According to Strabo, they extended across the central parts of modern Germany, between the Rhine and the Oder, and as far S. as the head waters of the Danube. Tacitus seems to designate by the name Suevi the tribes of eastern Germany from the Danube to the shores of the Baltic. In the 2d century the collective appellation disappears, the single tribes of the group being designated by their distinctive names; later, however, other Suevi, an adventurous German people of mixed origin, appear upon the banks of the Neckar, where they gave rise to the modern name Swabia, and also in northern Spain, where they conquered Galicia in the early part of the 5th century.

SUEZ. I. An isthmus about 75 m. broad, lying between the Mediterranean and Red seas, and connecting the continents of Asia and Africa. With the exception of two small ridges of the respective medium heights of 30 and 45 feet, the surface is only elevated from 5 to 8 feet above the level of the adjoining seas, and has a general depression toward the Mediterranean. In places it is so low as to be covered with salt marshes or swamps, and it is supposed that at one time the two seas were united. There are some considerable lakes, generally dry for most of the year, and the rest of the isthmus is a barren sandy desert, uninhabited. Fresh water is exceedingly scarce, being only found in a few places. A canal, begun by Necho and finished by Darius, connected the Nile with the gulf of Suez, and some traces of it are still visible. Napoleon projected a canal between the Red and Mediterranean seas, and for many years this subject has attracted considerable attention in Europe. In 1852 M. de Lesseps, a French engineer, undertook to form a joint stock company to cut a ship canal, and two years afterward he obtained a firman from the pasha of Egypt conferring upon him the exclusive privilege of carrying out the project. In 1855 a commission of engineers from various countries examined the proposed route, and stated in their report that there were no extraordinary difficulties in the way. The company was formed in Jan. 1859, with a capital of $40,000,000, and the work was shortly afterward commenced. According to this project the canal is to extend between the town of Suez and the gulf of Pelusium, to be 90 miles long, 20 feet deep at low water level of the Mediterranean, and 330 feet wide on the surface. II. A gulf forming the N. W. arm of the Red sea, extending from its head in a N. W. direction for about 200 m. between Egypt and the peninsula of Sinai, with a breadth varying from 30 to 40 m. The Israelites are supposed to have crossed about 2 m. from the head of this gulf on their exodus from Egypt. III. A town of Egypt, situated near the head of the gulf, 77 m. E. from Cairo; pop. about 2000. It stands in a desert, and is protected on the 3 sides by a wall mounting a few guns. The streets are unpaved, and the houses gener

ally poorly built of sun-dried brick. It contains several mosques and khans, a Greek church, a custom house, a large hotel for the accommodation of European travellers, recently erected by the pasha, a bazaar, and some tolerable shops. Good water and vegetable productions are not procurable near the town, and supplies of both have to be brought from considerable distances. Vessels of a large size find safe anchorage in the roadstead about 2 m. off, but there is only sufficient depth of water for boats and lighters to come alongside the quay. Suez is connected with Alexandria by a railway 222 m. long, which passes Cairo, and crosses the Nile by a magnificent bridge 65 m. from Alexandria. The place derives its importance from being a port of the overland route between England and India, China, and Australia.

SUFFOCATION. See ASPHYXIA.

SUFFOLK. I. An E. co. of Massachusetts, bounded E. and S. by Massachusetts bay; area, 15 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 192,701. It is com- . posed of Boston and Chelsea, and is the most important county in wealth and population in New England. Its inhabitants are principally engaged in manufacturing and trading. The agricultural productions in 1855 were 3,160 bushels of rye, 3,256 of Indian corn, 9,010 of potatoes, and 1,039 tons of hay. (See BOSTON, and CHELSEA.) The county is intersected by numerous railroads. Capital, Boston. II. An E. co. of New York, comprising the E. part of Long island, bounded N. by Long Island sound, and E. and S. by the Atlantic, and drained by the Peconic river and several smaller streams; area, 950 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 43,276. surface is hilly and uneven on the N., but nearly level on the S.; the soil is generally sandy, but fertile along the sound. The productions in 1855 were 504,767 bushels of Indian corn, 151,649 of wheat, 262,067 of oats, 304,063 of potatoes, 104,183 of turnips, 634,405 lbs. of butter, and 41,505 tons of hay. There were 3 straw paper mills, 25 ship yards, 3 spar factories, 1 cotton and 2 cotton warp factories, 2 clock factories, 1 piano factory, 5 newspaper offices, 112 churches, and 146 schools. The coast is indented by numerous harbors and inlets, and the county includes several small isllands. It is intersected by the Long Island railroad. Capital, Riverhead.

The

SUFFOLK, a county of England, bounded by Norfolk, Cambridge, Essex, and the North sea; area, 1,481 sq. m.; pop. in 1861, 336,271. It contains two county towns, Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds; other chief towns, Eye, Aldborough, Orford, and Sudbury. The coast line extends about 50 m., and a great part of it is low and marshy. The county is watered by numerous streams, the chief of which are the Stour, Orwell, Lark, and Waveney; and there are several small lakes. The surface is undulating, with some flat and marshy tracts, and the soil is generally a rich alluvial loam. The manufactures, with the exception of agricultural implements, are trifling. Fishing is

SUFISM

actively carried on upon the coast. There are
many.remains of antiquity, including the Ro-
man castle of Burgh, the walls of which are
still standing. Suffolk returns 9 members to
parliament, 4 for the county and 5 for the
boroughs.

SUFISM. See SOOFEEISM.

SUGAR (Arab. and Per. sukkar; Lat. saccharum), a sweet substance obtained from the juices of many plants, and in some of its varieties from animal fluids also. It constitutes an important article of food in very general use throughout the world, and is the chief source of nutriment in fruits, appearing in them as they ripen. Important as sugar is now regarded by the great proportion of the human race, it does not appear to have been generally known to the nations of antiquity, except to the inhabitants of China and India. The sweet calamus and sweet cane, of which mention is occasionally made in the Old Testament, were most probably the sugar cane, which may have been introduced from eastern Asia. But it must have slowly come into use; for the ancient classical authors, Strabo, Theophrastus, Arrian, and others, who allude to it, speak of it as a kind of honey obtained from a reed growing in India and Arabia; while Dioscorides and Pliny describe it as resembling salt, and only used in medicine. termed σakkapov, is, however, in Smith's "DicThis substance, tionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities" (art. "Saccharum"), described as "a natural concretion, forming on certain reeds, but more especially on the bamboo cane;" and it is added: "It would appear that Moses Chorenensis, in the 5th century, is the first author who distinctly mentions our sugar, that is to say, the sugar procured by boiling from the sugar This does not conflict with the older allusions to sugar cane and its sweet juice, which it is evident was long previously eaten with avidity, as the Zooloo Caffres at the present time eat the Chinese sugar cane. (See SORGHUM.) Yet Eratosthenes speaks of roots in India sweet to the taste even when boiled, in such manner that many have supposed he referred to sugar extracted from the cane. Others again agree with Dr. Moseley, who thinks the remarks of Pliny and Dioscorides applicable to the sugar candy which the Chinese are known to have made from ancient times, and which may very likely have found its way in small quantities even to Rome. Sugar canes were found in abundance near Tripoli in Syria by the crusaders; and Albert Aquensis, a monkish author of that period, speaks of the plant being cultivated with great care, and when ripe of the juice being beaten out in mortars, strained, and set aside till it concreted in a snowy or salt-like product. This was eaten with bread or with water, and was found more agreeable than honey. The Saracens introduced sugar canes into Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, and Sicily, when they obtained possession of those islands in the 9th century. They also were acquainted with

cane."

SUGAR

ture was soon permanently established in the
the method of making sugar, and the manufac
countries of the Levant.
From these sugar

the 12th century it was imported there more
was carried to Venice as early as 996; and in
cheaply from Egypt than from Sicily. William,
king of Sicily, in 1166 gave a mill for grinding
The first sugar cane cultivated in Spain was in
sugar canes to the monastery of St. Benedict.
Valencia, introduced there by the Moors after
their conquest of the country; the culture
early part of the 15th century the plant was in-
thence spread to Granada and Murcia. In the
troduced into Madeira and the Canary islands,
plants were taken to Brazil; but it is not at all
and from the latter it is supposed that the first
improbable that the sugar cane was a natural
product of America; and it may be that it is
only for the process of making sugar from it that
the new world is indebted to the Portuguese
and Spaniards. The first cultivation of the sugar
cane in the West Indies was at the island of St.
Domingo or Hayti, where it was successfully
prosecuted at the time of the second expedition
of Columbus, 1493 to 1495; and in 1518 there
The soil and climate proved admirably well
were 28 works for making sugar in operation.
suited for the crop; and for a long time this
island furnished the chief portions of the Euro-
lution, near the close of the last century, the
pean supplies of sugar. Previous to the revo-
export of sugar had amounted to 69,000 tons a
year. The English began to export sugar from
ployment to a large number of ships. The
Barbados in 1646, and the trade soon gave em-
Portuguese also at the same period were send-
ing large quantities of sugar to European coun-
tries from Brazil; and toward the close of the
17th century the culture had been generally
established throughout the West India islands,
in Mexico, all of Central America, the northern
countries of South America, Peru, Chili, &c.
Mention is made of the sugar cane among the
indigenous productions of Virginia and North
Carolina by the earliest settlers of the banks of
the James and Neuse rivers; but it seems prob-
mon reed.
able they must have mistaken for it the com-
cultivated on the banks of the Mississippi for
The plant appears to have been
Jesuits brought it from St. Domingo, and set-
the first time about the year 1751, when some
tled just above the site of New Orleans. In
1758 the first sugar mill was built a little further
down the river by M. Dubreuil on his sugar
plantation. The culture according to some ac-
counts prospered, so that in 1770 sugar was one
of the staple products of the colony, and after
the revolutionary war it was prosecuted so suc-
cessfully by emigrants from the United States,
that there were in 1803 as many as 81 sugar
estates on the delta alone. But according to
the statement of E. J. Forstall in De Bow's
"Industrial Resources," vol. iii. p. 275, "the
manufacture of cane into sugar does not appear
to have commenced before 1764, when samples
were sent to the mother country from the es-

tate of Chevalier de Mazan, near the city (New Orleans) on the opposite bank. The cession of Louisiana to Spain at that epoch appears to have put a stop to that industry, for no further traces of sugar making are to be found until 1791, when the first sugar house under the Spanish government was erected by a Mr. Solis at Terre aux Boeufs in the parish of St. Bernard. The next was established in 1796 on a plantation where now stands Carrollton." The successful result of this operation laid the foundation of the sugar industry of Louisiana; which still, however, advanced very slowly, and at the time of the cession of Louisiana to the United States (1803) the number of sugar estates was very small. In 1818 the crop amounted to 25,000 hogsheads, and the cane was ground altogether by cattle. Steam power was introduced in 1822. The further progress of the culture is presented in the tabular statements at the close of this article. The sugar-growing district in this state is on both sides the Mississippi river, from 57 m. below New Orleans to nearly 190 m. above; on Red river, including Rapides and Avoyelles; on many of the bayous and their tributaries; the prairies of St. Martin, Vermilion, &c. In Texas the crop has lately become an important one; and it is increasing in all the gulf states. It is even cultivated to some extent, as will be seen in the tables referred to, in South Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Yet the climate of Louisiana itself is rather north of that best suited to the plant, the cane being frequently killed by the frost after starting in the spring, and at maturity in the latter part of October and in November, the effect of which is to materially diminish its production of sugar. In 1857 injurious frosts thus occurred in April as late as the 22d, and on the 19th and 20th of November. In November, 1859, the cold was very severe on the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th in all parts of Louisiana, the thermometer on the 14th standing at 25 F. at New Orleans, and thick ice being formed in the most southern parishes. The effect of this was that the cane was everywhere frozen, and land which had previously given above 2 hogsheads to the acre yielded barely half a hogshead, and this of inferior quality. The climate is also subject to long continued droughts which seriously injure the growing crops. From some other cause not well understood the product of sugar to the acre is not so great as it has been in past years. This may be owing to continued repetition of the same crop without adding manures to the land, or to the practice of reserving inferior canes for seed, while some have supposed it is caused by deterioration of the stock through eontinued use of cuttings from the same source. To remedy the trouble, in case of this being the cause of the deterioration, the United States government recently collected a new supply of canes from the northern parts of South America and distributed them among the planters. The sugar plantations are also often seriously

damaged by the Mississippi river bursting through crevices in the banks and flooding the low country.-The sugar cane is said to be a natural product of some of the islands of the Pacific; and it certainly flourishes with great luxuriance in many of the tropical countries and islands of Asia. But though the chief, it is not the only source of the cane or crystallized variety of sugar either in the old or new world. This is also obtained from the beet root and the juice of the sugar maple tree, and of several trees of the palm tribe. Sugar was discovered in the parsnip, the white and red beet, carrot, and juice of the birch in 1747, by M. Margraaf, of the royal academy of sciences in Berlin; and in 1796 M. Achard analyzed the beet root in Berlin, and obtained from it 5 per cent. of white sugar and 3 of molasses. The high price of cane sugar rendered the discovery of some new source of it a matter of great importance, and a factory was established at Cumoom in Silesia for extracting it from the beet root. When in the time of Napoleon I. colonial products were excluded from France, this manufacture assumed still greater importance; and a great impulse was given to it by the offer of a premium of 1,000,000 francs for the best method of producing sugar from native products. The highest chemical talent of France was directed to this object, and the resulting discoveries and improvements were afterward applied with great advantage to the treatment of the sugar cane. The readmission of West India sugars on the return of peace nearly broke up the beet root manufacture, and this was only kept alive by the imposition of high duties on foreign sugars in 1820 and 1822. From that time the product rapidly increased, amounting in 1838 to over 86,000,000 lbs., or about 42,000 tons, in 1857-'8 to 150,000 tons, and in 1858-'9 to 130,000 tons. In Germany, Belgium, and Russia, beet sugar is also produced to a considerable amount. In 1858-'9, 36,668,557 cwt. of roots were consumed in 250 sugar refineries in the Zollverein. As 12 cwt. of roots are considered equal to 1 cwt. of sugar, this should represent 146,674 tons of sugar. In the Austrian empire there were consumed 16,042,248 cwt. of beet roots. In Belgium the same year the product of beet sugar was 18,000 tons. The manufacture in these countries is encouraged by a protective duty. Russia is said to produce from 30,000 to 40,000 tons of beet sugar annually. The annual product of maple sugar in the United States has been estimated at about 27,000 tons. The manufacture is carried on in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New York, Michigan, the New England states, and also in the British provinces. A much larger quantity of sugar is obtained from the wild date and the gomuti palms than from the maple, the product being rated as of all the cane sugar manufactured. In India the process of extracting the sugar is very rude, causing much of it to assume the uncrystallizable condition. The crude, dark brown, deliquescent sugar, called in India

SUGAR

jaggery, is the product of the evaporation of the toddy or palm juice. Beside these sources, cane sugar may also be obtained from the pumpkin, the chestnut, the young shoots of the Indian corn, and a large number of tropical fruits. The character of the Chinese sugar cane as a sugar-producing plant has been considered in the article SORGHUM; and the evidence at hand to the end of the year 1861 was unfavorable to the prospect of its yielding in this country crystallizable sugar to profit. But reports from Ohio published in Jan. 1862, give more favorable accounts of the success of the trials of the preceding year, and make mention of the exhibition of a number of fine samples of the sugar at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, on Jan. 7; and we learn that in the north-western states it is already a common article of commerce.-The sugars may be included in 4 principal varieties, of which that termed cane sugar, also called sucrose, is the most important, and is the common commercial variety. The second, called fruit sugar or fructose, exists in honey, treacle, and most acidulous fruits. It is a sirupy liquid, not crystallizable, though by boiling with dilute acids it may be partially converted into the next variety, which is crystallizable. The third sort is called grape sugar, starch sugar, or glucose. It exists in the juice of many plants, and constitutes the crystals which form in honey, and also the hard, granular, sweet masses common in old dried fruits, as raisins, figs, &c. It is also produced by boiling, with dilute acids, starch, cane sugar, ligneous fibre (as linen rags), sugar of milk, &c.; and is occasionally met with as a morbid constituent of the urine in cases of diabetes. It crystallizes in cubes or square tables, and from hot alcohol in anhydrous prisms. sweetening effect compared with that of cane Its sugar is about as 1 to 21. Glucose is manufactured to a considerable extent at the starch factories in Europe from potato starch, or rather dextrine, and is made use of in the manufacture of beer and an inferior sort of alcohol, designed for conversion into French brandy by the addition of certain essential oils or flavorings. It is produced by the action of diastase upon the dextrine in the preliminary stages of malting and mashing, but is more expeditiously made by treating the starch with sulphuric acid. It differs from starch (C12 H10O10) only by containing in addition the elements of 2 more equivalents of water, and also 2 equivalents of water of crystallization, with which it parts when carefully dried, becoming then C12 H12O12. Melting in its water of crystallization at 212° F., this sometimes serves to detect its presence in cane sugar. It differs from this also in being much less soluble in water, and in forming definite compounds with alkaline and earthy bases, which decompose and become brown at températures from 160° to 212°. Other points of difference will be noticed below. The fourth variety, called milk sugar, sugar of milk, lactine, or lactose, occurs only

in the milk of animals, and is inferior to the last described in sweetness. These substances all consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the two latter elements always existing in the exact proportions required to produce water; for which reason, although these elements are are sometimes spoken of as hydrates of carbon. not regarded as so combined, the compounds variety, is readily converted into the inferior While the highest grade of sugar, the cane grape sugar, all attempts to reverse the process, which would be a discovery of immense value, have entirely failed. The comparative composition of the sugars as respects the proportion of water they contain is presented in the following table, which is based upon quantities of each containing 12 equivalents of carbon:

Sugars.

2HO

Cane sugar, C12 H11
Milk sugar, C24 H24 024...
Fruit sugar, C12 H12 012.
Grape sugar, C12 H12 012
Ditto, dried, C24 H19 19...

[blocks in formation]

72

85.5

Cane sugar, as first obtained on evaporating the saccharine juices, is a yellowish brown substance in coarse crystalline powder and lumps, more or less moist and sticky, and containing variable quantities of glucose, treacle, and several organic and mineral substances. Lime is one of the latter, and it is thought that its presence induces the change in crude sugars, which after a time become gummy and soft and lose a portion of their sweetness. The foreign organic matters present impart to the crude sugars their peculiar taste and smell, and betray their particular source. These disappear when the sugar is refined. The best brown sugar has little odor and is in large sparkling grains. When refined, the sugar is converted into a hard and brittle crystalline Its specific gravity is then 1.606, giving 1,606 mass, and is often moulded into conical loaves. large crystals, known as sugar candy, obtained ounces avoirdupois to the cubic foot. In the by evaporating a saturated aqueous solution, prepared at a temperature of 212°, the sugar is colorless; but in the crystalline grains it is of snowy whiteness owing to the numerous reflecThe form of the large crystals is that of rhorntions and refractions from the crystalline faces. boidal prisms terminated by dihedral summits. If the solution be prepared at 230°, or be long boiled, the sugar forms an amorphous mass on cooling. Pieces of loaf sugar rubbed together emit a pale violet phosphorescent light. Sugar is soluble in about of its weight of cold water, and in all proportions in boiling water. It is sparingly dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol, but deposited again when cold. At the temperature of 320° it fuses, and on cooling forms the amber-colored solid known as barley sugar. When the temperature is gradually raised to 400° or 420°, sugar loses two equivalents of water, and is converted into the dark brown substance called caramel, used for coloring wines. At a still higher temperature decom

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