tion and looking back to the first line, should be 360°, or 0°. A compass and chain may be employed in filling up the interior details of a large survey with the transit; and the compass may be used for determining the magnetic bearing of one of the lines, unless this be astronomically ascertained by observations of the north star or of the shadows before and after noon.— The compass is the instrument in most common use in ordinary surveying. The magnetic needle, wherever the instrument is set, establishes the meridian line, and from this, the sights of the instrument being turned to any other line, the angle of divergence is read on the graduated circle around the compass box. This instrument has been described under its own name, and the method of using it and its defects alluded to; also the more perfect instrument, in which its inaccuracies are obviated, under the head of COMPASS, SOLAR.-The details of surveys are variously modified according to the extent of the area, character of the ground, &c. With the transit or compass, the boundary lines may be all followed out, the angles they make with each other determined, and their lengths measured by the chain; the points of crossing of roads, brooks, fences, &c., measured, and the bearings of these objects taken; and increased accuracy may be given to the work by running diagonal or proof lines, as in chain surveying. Additional checks are furnished by taking at each station the bearings of some marked objects, which, when the work is plotted, should severally fall at the points of intersection of the lines directed toward these objects from the several stations. Sometimes a tract may be surveyed from a measured base line, either a line within or without it, or one of the boundary lines, by placing the compass successively at each end of this line and taking the bearings of each corner; or without a compass the work may be very conveniently performed with approximate correctness by the plane table method, provided no angles are taken less than 30° nor larger than 150°. A drawing board covered with paper is set up at one end of a measured base line, and a ruler furnished with upright sights at each end, exactly over the drawing edge, is set with this edge against a fine needle stuck up in the board, and is then directed successively toward the corners of the tract to be surveyed and any other prominent objects, toward which from the needle lines are to be drawn on the paper. One of these lines should also be in the direction of the measured line. The instrument is then taken to the other end of the measured line, the needle is removed along the last line named on the board a distance corresponding, according to the scale adopted, to that of the measured line on the ground, and the board is so placed as to make the line toward the former station correct. The ruler is then again pointed to the same objects, and lines are drawn toward each from the new position of the needle. Their intersections with the former lines designate the places of these

objects on the plane. The plane table is used in various other ways, as by moving it from one corner to the next, and placing it at each so that the last line drawn coincides with that in the ground. From any central point also radiating lines may be measured to the corners, and the distances measured and marked off according to the proper scale.-Rivers, brooks, and roads are surveyed by measuring a succession of lines following their general course, and taking offsets from the sides of the line. Streets of cities are followed in a similar manner. Distances are sometimes measured upon roads, where expedition is more important than extreme accuracy, by various substitutes for the chain, some of which, as the odometer and pedometer, have been noticed under the former head. One may soon accustom himself to pace in straight lines, and with steps of uniform lengths, the most exact method being to regu late the natural step, rather than to try to attain one of any determinate length, as a yard. The usual average step of a man is that of the English military pace, 2 feet. The French geographical engineers accustom themselves to take regular steps of of a metre, or 2 feet 71 inches.-The field work being completed, the figure of the tract surveyed is reproduced upon a diminished scale by what is termed plotting; and from this plot the contents are ascertained by a series of mathematical calculations applied successively to the several divisions; or by the method of calculation of latitudes and departures, for which a table of natural sines is required, unless "traverse tables” giving the latitude and departure for any bearing, as furnished in some books on surveying, are at hand. An approximate estimate of the number of acres included in the survey is sometimes made by drawing the plan upon sheet lead of uniform thickness or upon Bristol board or heavy paper, cutting out the piece on the boundary lines, and weighing it in a delicate balance. The weight may then be compared with that of a similar piece that exactly comprises a definite number of acres, laid out upon the same scale. The extensive territories of the United States are surveyed upon a peculiar system, planned with reference to the division of the lands into squares of uniform size, so arranged that any tract of 160 acres, or a "quarter section," may have its distinct designation and be readily found upon the map or recognized upon the ground by the marks left by the surveyors. Each great survey is based upon a meridian line run due N. and S. by astronomical measurements the whole extent of the survey in these directions; and upon a "standard parallel" or base line, running E. and W., similarly established with great accuracy. Parallels to these lines are run every 6 miles, usually with the solar compass corrected by frequent celestial observations; and thus, as nearly as the figure of the earth admits, the surface is divided into squares of 6 miles N. and S. and the same E. and W., each one containing 36 square miles or

sections, into which the territory is further divided by meridians and parallels run at every mile; while the half mile being marked on these lines by setting what is called a quarter post, the points are established for the subdivision into quarter sections. The squares of 36 square miles are termed townships, often contracted to "towns;" and each line of them E. and W. is numbered either N. or S. from the base line, and each line of them N. and S. is termed a range and is numbered E. or W. from the meridian. The N. and S. lines bordering the townships are known as range lines, and the E. and W. as township lines. Each survey is designated by the meridian on which it is based; and of these principal meridians there are 5, from the first one commencing at the mouth of the Great Miami river to the 5th from the mouth of the Arkansas river N. The 2d one runs through the centre of the state of Indiana, the 3d from the mouth of the Ohio through Illinois, and the 4th from the mouth of the Illinois river N. The state of Michigan has a distinct meridian, and its base line crosses the lower peninsula of the state from Lake St. Clair to Lake Michigan. The 36 sections of each township are numbered in order, beginning with the N. E. corner and thence proceeding along the N. side of the township to section 6 in the N. W. corner; section 7 commences the next line of sections S., the numbers running E. to 12, and then beginning the 3d line with 13 and running W. to 18, and so on, bringing No. 36 in the S. E. corner of the township. The quarter sections are designated by their position as N. E., N. W., S. E., and S. W. Fractional sections of irregular shapes are admitted on the borders of lakes, rivers, &c. With these explanations any tract may be readily pointed out upon the government maps from its abbreviated description, or any locality in the wildest territory may be correctly defined; thus the S. W. qr. sect. 13, T. 66 N., R. 34 W., meridian Michigan, is traced directly to an old mining location near the N. E. extremity of Isle Royale, Lake Superior. The law which established this system, while it required that the N. and S. lines should be true meridians, also required, what was entirely inconsistent with this, that the townships should be 6 miles square; for the figure of the earth causes the meridians to converge toward the pole, thus making the N. line of each township shorter than its S. line, an inequality which becomes more and more marked the higher the latitude of the surveys. Provision is consequently made for correcting the errors thus caused, by establishing what are called correction lines, which are parallels bounding a line of townships on the Ñ. when lying N. of the principal base, or the S. line of townships when lying S. of the principal base, from which the surveys as they are continued are laid out anew, the range lines again starting at correct distances from the principal meridian. In Michigan these correction lines are repeated at the end of every 10th township;

but in Oregon they have been repeated with every 5th township. The instructions to the surveyors have been that each range of townships should be made as much over 6 miles in width on each base and correction line as it will fall short of the same width where it closes on to the next correction line N.; and it is further provided that in all cases where the exterior lines of the townships shall exceed or shall not extend 6 miles, the excess or deficiency shall be specially noted and added to or deducted from the western or northern sections or half sections in such township, according as the error may be in running the lines from E. to W. or from S. to N. In order to throw the excesses or deficiencies on the N. and on the W. sides of the township, it is necessary to survey the section lines from S. to N. on a true meridian, leaving the result in the N. line of the township to be governed by the convexity of the earth and the convergency of the meridians. Navigable rivers, lakes, and islands are "meandered" or surveyed by the compass and chain along the banks. The instruments employed on these surveys, beside the solar compass, are a surveying chain 33 feet long of 50 links, and another of smaller wire as a standard to be used for correcting the former, as often at least as every other day; also 11 tally pins made of steel, telescope, targets, tape measure, and tools for marking the lines upon trees or stones. In surveying through woods, trees intercepted by the line are marked with two chops or notches, on each side; these are called sight or line trees. Other trees near by not touched by the line are blazed on two sides, quartering toward the line; but if at some distance from the line, the two blazes should be near together, on the side facing the line. These are generally found to be permanent marks, not only recognizable for many years, but they carry with them their own age by the rings of growth around the blaze, which may at any subsequent time be cut out and counted as years; and the same are recognized in courts of law as evidence of the date of the survey. They cannot be obliterated by cutting down the trees or otherwise without leaving evidence of the act. Corners are marked upon trees, if found at the right spots, or else upon posts set in the ground, and sometimes a monument of stones is used for a township corner and a single stone for section corners; mounds of earth are made where there are no stones nor timber. At the corners the 4 adjacent sections are designated by distinct marks cut into a tree, one in each section. These trees facing the corner are plainly marked with the letters B. T. (bearing tree) cut into the wood. Notches cut upon the corner posts or trees indicate the number of miles to the outlines of the township, or, if on the boundaries of the township, to the township corners. These marks afford to those who are travelling through wild territories exact knowledge of their position.-A useful text book is the "Treatise on Land Surveying" of W. M. Gillespie (8th ed., New York, 1861).

SURVILLE.

See CLOTILDE de Surville. SUSA (Gr. ra Zovoa, the city of lilies), an ancient city of Persia, the Shushan (Heb., lily) of the Scriptures, the capital of the province of Susiana, and one of the residences of the court. It was on the E. bank of the Choaspes, enjoyed a fine climate, and was one of the largest cities of the Persian empire. Strabo says it was 120 stadia in circumference, and surrounded like Babylon with a wall of burnt brick. According to Eschylus and Pliny, it was founded by Darius Hystaspis, though others make Tithonus, the father of Memnon, its founder. It was for a long period the chief treasury of the Persian empire. In 325 B. C., when Alexander visited it, it possessed immense wealth, and from its plunder he gave largesses to his soldiers and presents of great value to his generals on the occasion of his marriage with Barsine and Parysatis. There has been considerable controversy on the site of the ancient city, Sus, situated at the juncture of the Kerah (Choaspes) and the Diz, and Shuster both having their advocates. The question has been definitely settled by the researches of Sir W. F. Williams and Mr. W. K. Loftus, who discovered a gigantic tumulus and numerous cuneiform and some Greek inscriptions at Sus, giving the name of one of the governors of Susiana, and describing the completion of a palace then commenced by Darius Hystaspis. -See Loftus, "Travels and Researches in Chaldea and Susiana."

SUSIANA, an ancient province or region of Persia of great extent, but mostly a plain, bounded N. by Media and the chain of the Parachoathras, E. by the same mountains and the river Oroatis, S. by the Persian gulf, and W. by the plains of Mesopotamia and Babylonia. It thus nearly corresponded to the modern province of Khoozistan. It was drained by the Eulæus (now the Karoon), the Choaspes (Kerah), the Coprates (Abzal), the Hedyphon (Jerrahi), and the Oroatis (Tab). Its earliest inhabitants were the Elymai, probably the Elamites of Scripture, and a portion of these still occupied it in the time of Strabo and Æschylus; the other tribes mentioned as settled in the province are the Susii, the Cissii, the Cossæi, the Uxii, and the Messabatæ. The first named were agriculturists and had their villages on the plain; the others were robbers, who made their homes in the mountains, and descended to the plain only to plunder the more peaceful inhabitants.

SUSO, HEINRICH, often called AMANDUS, a German mystic, born in Constance probably in 1300, died in Ulm, Jan. 25, 1365. He entered the order of Dominicans in his 13th year, and received the degree of doctor at Cologne. From his 18th to his 40th year, in his cloister on the lake of Constance, he submitted to the severest mortification. His penance threatened to be fatal, when he threw his instruments of torture into the lake, and set out as a preacher through Swabia, Switzerland, and the valley of the Rhine.

His sympathetic character and mystical teachings gave him influence especially over women, and occasioned scandal. He has been called a minnesinger of heavenly things, and his works are, according to Görres, among the most delightful of mystical writings. Among them are an autobiography, a treatise on eternal wisdom, and a treatise on truth. Editions with woodcuts were published at Augsburg in 1482 and 1512. There is a translation into modern German by Diepenbrock (Ratisbon, 1829; 2d. ed., 1838).

SUSQUEHANNA, a river of New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, having its source in Otsego and Canaderaga lakes, in Otsego co., N. Y. It flows in a generally S. W. direction to the Pennsylvania line in Broome co., receiving the Unadilla and several smaller tributaries in its course; near the Pennsylvania boundary it flows around the base of a spur of the Alleghanies, first a little N. of W. and then suddenly N. N. W., to Binghamton, forming what is called the "Great Bend;" after receiving the Chenango at Binghamton, its course is W. by S. till it again reaches the Pennsylvania line, where it takes a S. E. direction to Pittston, Luzerne co., receiving the Tioga and numerous small tributaries in its course; at Pittston it turns sharply to the S. W., and receives near Sunbury the large affluent known as the West branch of the Susquehanna, which is more than 200 m. in length, and to its junction with which the stream is sometimes called the North or East branch; then, turning southward, it receives the Juniata at Duncannon, 14 m. from Harrisburg, and flowing thence in a S. E. course, enters the Chesapeake bay at Havre de Grace. Its length is a little more than 400 m. from Otsego lake to the bay, and from the junction of the two branches 153 m. The river is generally shallow, and its course much broken by rapids; in the spring, during flood, rafts, and strong boats float down from Binghamton, but at other times it is not navigable. Immense quantities of timber are transported upon it. Canals have been constructed along its banks, on the main stream for 125 m., and on the West branch for 124 m. Its waters abound with fine fish; shad in great quantities are caught every season and exported largely. The lower waters of the Susquehanna are famous for the great abundance of ducks and other wild fowl which collect there every winter; and millions are exported to the Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York markets.

SUSQUEHANNA, a N. E. co. of Penn., bordering on N. Y., and drained by tributaries of the Susquehanna river; area, 800 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 36,267. The surface is very hilly, and the soil fertile and well adapted to grazing purposes. The productions in 1850 were 83,783 bushels of wheat, 237,343 of Indian corn, 50,105 tons of hay, and 1,020,578 lbs. of butter. There were 30 grist mills, 122 saw mills, 4 woollen factories, 4 iron founderies, 25 tanneries, and 2 newspaper offices; and in 1860 there

were 10,674 pupils attending public schools. Timber is abundant, and the export trade in pine lumber is very extensive. The Erie railroad traverses a few miles of the N. E. part, and the county is intersected by the Delaware and Lackawanna railroad. Capital, Montrose. SUSSEX. I. A N. co. of N. J., bordering on N. Y. and Penn., bounded N. W. by the Delaware river, and drained by the Flatkill, Paulinskill, Wallkill, and Pequest; area, 600 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 23,855. The Blue mountains traverse the N. and the Hamburg and Wawayanda mountains the S. part, and the remainder of the surface is very hilly; the soil is very fertile. The productions in 1850 were 459,254 bushels of Indian corn, 66,006 of wheat, 229,795 of rye, 151,011 of oats, 1,816,610 lbs. of butter, and 37,711 tons of hay. There were 13 forges, 6 founderies, 3 furnaces, 25 grist mills, 11 saw mills, 44 churches, 4 newspaper offices, and 7,196 pupils attending public schools. The Hopatcong lake is in the S. E. part, and supplies the summit level of the Morris canal; and there are several other small lakes or ponds. Franklinite, iron ore, red oxide of zinc, and other minerals are found. It is traversed in the S. part by the Morris canal and the Sussex branch of the Morris and Essex railroad. Capital, Newton. II. A S. co. of Del., bordering on Md., Delaware bay, and the Atlantic, and drained by affluents of the Nanticoke and Pocomoke rivers and other streams; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 29,617, of whom 1,341 were slaves. The surface is almost level, and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 1,180,086 bushels of Indian corn, 43,725 of wheat, 50,796 of potatoes, and 108,489 lbs. of butter. There were 29 grist mills, 60 saw and planing mills, 8 tanneries, 1 forge, 2 newspaper offices, 59 churches, and 4,874 pupils attending public schools. It is intersected by the Delaware railroad. Capital, Georgetown. III. A S. E. co. of Va., bounded N. E. by Blackwater river, and intersected by the Nottoway; area, 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 10,175, of whom 6,384 were slaves. The surface is hilly, and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 356,171 bushels of Indian corn, 35,133 of wheat, and 780 bales of cotton. There were 24 churches, and 249 pupils attending public schools. It is intersected by the Petersburg railroad. The value of real estate in 1856 was $1,045,799, showing an increase of 14 per cent. since 1850. Capital, Sussex Court House.

SUSSEX, a S. E. county of England, bounded N. by Surrey, N. E. by Kent, S. by the English channel, and W. by Hampshire; area, 1.468 sq. m.; pop. in 1861, 363,648. It has two capitals, Chichester and Lewes; and the other towns of greatest importance are Brighton, Hastings, New Shoreham, Rye, and Horsham. The coast line is not much broken, the most remarkable projection being Beachy Head, which is 564 feet above the sea. A range of chalk hills, called the North Downs, crosses

the N. E. part of the county; and the South Downs, with an average height of 500 feet, and from 4 to 6 miles broad, run through its entire length nearly parallel to the sea coast. The principal rivers are the Arun, Adur, Ouse, and Cruckmere. The county is purely agricultural, and wheat and hops are the chief crops. The downs are principally used for pasturage, and are famous for the quality of the mutton fed upon them. Sussex is remarkably rich in antiquities, and contains many noble mansions. It returns 18 members to parliament, 2 each for East and West Sussex, and 14 for boroughs.

SUTHERLAND, a N. county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Atlantic ocean, E. by Caithness and the North sea, S. by Ross and the frith of Dornoch, and W. by the Minch; area, 1,754 sq. m.; pop. in 1861, 25,208. Dornoch, the capital, is the only town. Several small islands which lie off the N. and W. coasts are included in the county. On these sides the coasts are generally high and bold, and are indented by numerous arms of the sea; but that on the E. is flat with a low sandy beach. The interior is mountainous, the highest summit reaching the height of 3,230 feet above the sea. The rivers are all small with short courses, but there are numerous lakes. The principal crops raised are oats, barley, and potatoes. Sheep farming is extensively carried on. Game, more particularly deer, is abundant.

SUTLEJ, or SUTLEDGE, a river of Hindostan, the most easterly of the five rivers of the Punjaub. It has its rise in some lakes in Thibet N. of the Himalaya mountains, about lat. 31° 8' N., long. 81° 53' E., and in the early part of its course is joined by numerous tributaries. In about lat. 30° 10′ N., long. 75° 10′ E., after a course of 550 m., it unites with the Beas, and the river from thence is called the Ghara until its junction with the Chenaub, 300 m., when it takes the name of Punjnud, and joins the Indus after a further course of 60 m., in lat. 28° 40′ N., long. 70° 35' E. The upper Sutlej is supposed to be the Hesudrus and the lower the Hyphasis of the ancients. In the upper part of its course the Sutlej is an impetuous torrent, and the scenery magnificent.

SUTTEE (Sans. sati, from sat, pure), properly, a chaste and virtuous wife, but commonly used to designate the self-immolation of a widow by burning or burying alive, in connection with the dead body of her husband. The practice of suttee has existed for many centuries not only in India but in other Asiatic countries. Diodorus Siculus gives an instance which occurred in the army of Eumenes more than 300 years B. C., and in India there is reason to believe it was practised as early as the 14th century B. C. It was more prevalent there than elsewhere, from the belief encouraged by the Brahmins, and professedly derived from their most sacred books, that it conferred the highest merit not only on the widow herself, but on her dead husband. It was asserted by the Brahminical writers that every woman who

thus burned herself should remain in paradise with her husband 3 crores and 50 lacs of years (35,000,000), while otherwise she would have no place in paradise. Recent examinations of the Vedas and the Institutes of Manu by eminent philologists show that these works contain no command for suttee, and that the passages formerly quoted by Brahmins in favor of it were in some instances exactly the reverse of what the Brahmins represented. The practice was very prevalent in India long after the East India company came into power there. The Mohammedan emperor Akbar had prohibited it in the 16th century, but probably without much effect. In 1813 the company undertook to regulate the practice by prohibiting the wife from being burned separate from the body of her husband, and also from sacrificing herself with the body unless she did it voluntarily. This did not materially diminish the number of cases, for in the 12 years between 1815 and 1826 there were 7,154 officially reported in Bengal alone. In 1829 Lord William Bentinck, then governor-general of India, enacted a law declaring all aid, assistance, or participation in any act of suttee to be murder, and punishable as such. This law, at first applicable only to Bengal, was soon extended over all the company's territories, and wherever possible incorporated in the treaties made with the native princes. This created much excitement at first in Bengal, the Brahmins denouncing it with great violence as an interference with their religion, and even sending an agent to England with a large sum of money to procure its repeal. The powerful influence of Rammohun Roy was exerted against the practice, and the excitement soon subsided. Suttee is still occasionally, though rarely, practised in some of the subsidiary governments of India.-The mode of performing it was much the same throughout India, varying only according to the rank of the parties or the customs of each province. Sometimes the widow was buried alive by the side of the corpse, but generally the self-immolation was by burning. The widow, seating herself by the side of her husband's body, had the sides of her feet painted red, and then bathed herself, and dressed in her finest clothes. Meantime a drum was beaten through the adjacent villages to indicate the sacrifice that was to take place. A large company having assembled, a hole was dug in the ground, and a bed formed of green boughs, on which was reared the funeral pile of dry fagots, hemp, clarified butter, and other combustibles. The widow then gave her ornaments to her friends, painted her forehead, tied red cotton round her wrists, put two new combs in her hair, and when the body of her husband was placed upon the pile, walked around it 7 times, scattering parched rice and cowries, and finally ascended the pile, to which she was secured with ropes. The eldest son, or the head man of the village, usually lighted the pile. SUTTER, a central co. of California, bound

ed S. W. by the Sacramento and E. by Feather river; area, 625 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 3,390. The surface is in some parts mountainous, and in the N. is the remarkable group of peaks called the Buttes; the soil is fertile. The productions in 1858 were 62,300 bushels of wheat, 308,000 of barley, 28,000 of oats, 3,000 tons of hay, 35,000 lbs. of butter, and 25,000 of wool. Capital, Yuba City.

SUTTON, AMOS, D.D., an English missionary, born at Sevenoaks, Kent, in 1798, died in Cuttack, India, Aug. 17, 1854. He studied theology under the Rev. J. G. Pike, secretary of the general Baptist missionary society, was ordained as a missionary at Derby in 1824, and was sent to Orissa, India. He remained in the missionary work for 30 years, visiting England and America once in that period. He preached in English and in Oriya, though for some years he had not the charge of a mission church; he was tutor in the mission academy and superintendent of the society's asylums for orphans, and translated the whole Scriptures into Oriya, revising the New Testament a second time. He also compiled and published an Oriya dictionary, grammar, and lesson book, wrote 3 volumes of tracts in that language, and translated 13 English works, school books, and religious treatises into it, for the use of his scholars and converts. In English he published "The Family Chaplain" (2 vols.), “Narrative of the Mission to Orissa," "Orissa and its Evangelization," Hymn Book for Mission Congregations," "Guide to the Saviour," and one or two smaller works.

79 66

SUWANEE, & N. co. of Florida, intersected by the Suwanee river; area, about 750 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 1,388, of whom none were slaves. There are 2 or 3 small lakes and several swamps. Capital, Suwanee.

SUWAROFF, ALEXANDER VASILIEVITCH, count, Prince Italiyski, a Russian field marshal and generalissimo, born in Moscow, Nov. 13, 1729, died in St. Petersburg, May 18, 1800. He was of a Swedish family who had emigrated to Russia in 1622. He entered the army at the age of 13 as a cadet, attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1757, at the commencement of the war with Prussia was appointed commandant of Memel, and in 1759 distinguished himself at the battle of Kunersdorf. In 1763 the empress Catharine II. gave him a commission as colonel of the Astrakhan infantry, and his success in defeating the confederates of Bar in Poland, in 1768 and the following years, made him major-general. In 1773, serving under Field Marshal Rumiantzoff, he defeated the Turks in 3 battles, and, after a junction with General Kamenskoi, gained a most decisive victory over the Turkish commander at Kosludgi, and was appointed general of division. During the peace which followed, he was engaged in appeasing the troubles among the peasantry in the interior of Russia. He subsequently subdued to the Russian sway the khan of the Crimea and the Nogai Tartars, compelling