the latter, in 1783, to render homage to the empress, for which service Catharine made him general-in-chief. He again led an army against the Turks in 1788, and raised the siege of Kinburn, took Otchakov the following summer, defeated Mohammed Pasha at Fokshany, and on Sept. 22 routed the main army of the Turks on the banks of the Rimnik, for which he received the title Rimnikski, and that of count of the empire. He next laid siege to Ismail, which long withstood his forces, and was at last carried by assault, though the Russians were twice repulsed with terrible loss. Suwaroff gave it over to plunder, and 30,000 Turks were massacred and 10,000 made prisoners. At the peace of Jassy he was made governor of Ekaterinoslav, the Taurida, and the conquered provinces at the mouth of the Dniester. In 1794 he was ordered to put down the insurrection in Poland; and after defeating Kosciuszko he carried Praga (one of the suburbs of Warsaw) by assault, deluging it with blood, and entered Warsaw Nov. 9, 1794. For this service the empress made him field marshal and lavished costly presents upon him. Paul I. on his accession was prejudiced against him and stripped him of his rank; but in 1799, at the request of the emperor of Germany, he confided to him the command of the allied army sent to Italy against the French. Here he gained some advantages at Cassano, defeated Macdonald upon the banks of the Trebia, and Joubert at Novi, but was driven out of Switzerland by Masséna. He was recalled to Russia, and the title of Prince Italiyski conferred upon him; but before he could reach the capital the insane monarch had become offended with him for a trifle, and, recalling all the preparations made for his triumphal entry into the capital, publicly disgraced him. The chagrin which this treatment caused the old soldier, already broken in health, led to his death. In 1801 the czar Alexander caused a statue to be erected to his memory in the Champ de Mars of St. Petersburg. His autobiography has been published under the title of Vie de Souworoff tracée par lui-même, ou collection de ses lettres et de ses écrits, edited by Serge Glenka (2 vols, 8vo., Moscow, 1819), and 10 or 12 memoirs have appeared in Russia and elsewhere.

SWABIA, or SUABIA (Ger. Schwaben), a duchy of the German empire during its earlier period, and subsequently one of its 10 great circles, or great divisions. The circle was bounded N. by the Palatinate of the Rhine and Franconia, E. by Bavaria, S. by Switzerland, and W. by France, the Rhine flowing on the borders of the two latter. It had an area of 13,000 sq. m., and a population of 2,200,000, and was conterminous with the modern divisions of Würtemberg, the southern part of Baden, and the province of Swabia and Neuburg in Bavaria. The country, one of the most beautiful and fertile tracts in Germany, is traversed by the Danube from S. W. to N. E., and diversified by the mountain scenery of the Black Forest on the W. and the Alps on the S. VOL. XV.-14

It was originally called Alemannia, and received the name of Swabia (from the Suevi, who inhabited parts of it) when the Alemanni were conquered by Clovis in 496. Columba, an Irish monk, introduced Christianity in the 7th century. Toward the end of the 11th century it was in a very flourishing condition, and in 1080 the emperor Henry IV. made the duchy of Swabia hereditary in the family of Frederic of Hohenstaufen. It subsequently became one of the most powerful and most civilized countries of Germany. In the Italian wars the reigning house of Swabia stood at the head of the Ghibelline party, and when Conradin was executed at Naples in 1268 the line became extinct. The various cities, prelates, and counts then made themselves independent, and since that time Swabia has not formed a separate state. Various confederacies, however, were formed at different periods, known in history under the name of Swabian unions. The principal of these was the "great Swabian union" of 1488. The Swabian circle was definitely organized in 1563.

SWAIN, CHARLES, an English poet, born in Manchester in 1803. His father dying early, his education was superintended by his maternal uncle, a French gentleman named Tavaré, who subsequently took him into his own business, that of a dyer. When about 30 years of age Mr. Swain exchanged this occupation for that of an engraver, in which he still continues. His first literary productions appeared in the periodicals, and in 1828 he published a volume of "Metrical Essays," followed by "Beauties of the Mind" (1831) and "Dryburgh Abbey" (1832), an elegy on Sir Walter Scott, which elicited the favorable comments of Southey. His subsequent publications comprise "A Memoir of Henry Liversedge" (1835); "Rhymes for Childhood" (1846); "Dramatic Chapters, Poems, and Songs" (1847); "English Melodies" (1849); "Letters from Laura d'Auverne," &c. They have had considerable popularity in England, where the author is known as the "Manchester poet," and a collection of his poems has recently appeared in the United States (32mo., Boston, 1858).

SWAIN, DAVID LOWRY, an American statesman and educator, born near Asheville, Buncombe co., N. C., Jan. 4, 1801. He was admitted to the bar of North Carolina in 1823, and soon entered upon a lucrative practice. In 1824 he was elected to represent Buncombe co. in the house of commons, and in 1831 was appointed one of the judges of the superior court. In the succeeding year he was chosen governor of the state, being the youngest man that ever filled that office in North Carolina. Upon the expiration of his term of office in 1835, he succeeded Dr. Caldwell as president of the university of North Carolina, a position which he still occupies (March, 1862).

SWAINSON, WILLIAM, an English naturalist, born in Liverpool, Oct. 8, 1789. He served in the Mediterranean in the army commissariat

department from 1807 to 1815, then travelled in South America with Koster, the German naturalist, and on his return settled in London, and devoted himself to the study of natural history. In 1820 he commenced the publication of "Zoological Illustrations, or original Figures and Descriptions of new, rare, or interesting Animals," since republished in 6 vols. 8vo.; and in 1821 of a work on the mollusca, under the title of "Exotic Conchology" (4to.). He is also the author of a "Naturalist's Guide for collecting and preserving all Subjects of Natural History and Botany," &c. (1822); of numerous papers on natural history in the "Journal of the Royal Institution,” "Zoological Journal," and "Magazine of Natural History;" of 12 volumes on different departments of natural history in Lardner's "Cabinet Cyclopædia," regarded as of high authority; of two volumes on the "Birds of Western Africa" and one on the "Fly Catchers," in Jardine's "Naturalist's Library” (1837-'8); of "A Treatise on Malacology, or the Natural Classification of Shells and Shell Fish" (1840); and of a series of "Ornithological Drawings," being selections of Brazilian and Mexican birds (1834-41). He also assisted Sir John Richardson in the preparation of that part of his "Fauna Boreali-Americana" which relates to North American birds, and in connection with Mr. Shuckard prepared in 1840 a volume on the "History and Natural Arrangement of Insects." In 1841 he emigrated with his family to New Zealand, and since his residence there has published "Observations on the Climate of New Zealand."

SWALLOW, the general name of the diurnal fissirostral birds of the family hirundinidæ, including the swifts, many of which are called swallows. (See SWIFT.) The bill is short and weak, very broad at the base and suddenly compressed to the tip; the wings long, narrow, and acute; primaries 9 or 10, the 1st the longest; tail more or less forked; tarsi very short and weak, generally naked, and covered with scales; toes usually long and slender, with the claws moderate, curved, and sharp; the gape very wide and usually provided with short bristles. The typical genus hirundo (Linn.), having more than 50 species, embraces several well known, elegant swallows both in America and the old world, remarkable for their great powers of flight; their food consists of insects, which they take on the wing, usually in the neighborhood of water, with remarkable skill and grace; they drink on the wing, sweeping along the surface of the water, and often wash themselves by a sudden plunge. They fly at the rate of a mile a minute in their ordinary evolutions, but are rather awkward on the ground from the length of the wings and the shortness of the legs; they live more on the wing than any other birds, even feeding their young in the air; from the swiftness of their flight they are rarely caught by birds of prey, and are seldom hit by sportsmen; their sight

is very acute; they fly low in damp weather, where the insects are most abundant, and are thence supposed to foretell rain. They are most numerous in the tropics, migrating to and from temperate regions in warm and cold weather; in Great Britain they make their appearance from Africa, where they spend the winter, from the beginning to the middle of April, and depart toward the end of October, crossing the channel singly or in small parties, and are as much exhausted by the passage as other migratory birds of inferior powers of flight; they often alight on vessels, and sometimes fall into the sea. In the United States they arrive about a month later and depart several weeks earlier. Most species prefer the neighborhood of man, building their nests in society in his dwellings and buildings; they form attachments to places, returning year after year to the same nests; though declared by ancient writers to be one of the two untamable animals (the fly being the other), they are docile and have been partially domesticated; they are useful to man in destroying insects, a single bird probably collecting about 1,000 in the course of a day. The nests are generally made of clay or mud mixed with straw and grass, of various forms, and attached externally to some building; many species breed in holes in sand banks, at the end of which is the nest of grasses and feathers; the eggs are 5 or 6. Swallows are alluded to in the sacred and ancient writings, and are the subjects of many strange tales and fabulous stories; they are generally considered the friends of man, and it is thought barbarous and unlucky to kill them; they are regarded as the winged heralds of summer. The best known species in the old world is the chimney or house swallow (H. rustica, Linn.); it is 63 inches long, bluish black above, with a band on the chest, and the forehead, eyebrows, and throat, ruddy; lower parts rufous white, with a white spot on the inner web of each tail feather except the 2 innermost; the tail is very long and forked. As its name imports, it frequently builds its nest in chimneys a few feet from the top; it also nests in old walls and shafts of mines, and among the rafters of barns and sheds; the nest is cup-shaped, made of earth and straw and lined with feathers; the eggs are white, spotted with ash and red. The parents are very attentive to the young, and brave in their defence; they have 2 broods in a season, the 2d sometimes left to perish, not being able to quit the nest at the period of migration, and the instinct which prompts to the latter being stronger than parental love; the males are sweet singers, and very courageous. The analogue of this species in America is not the one commonly called chimney swallow with us (which is a swift), but the barn swallow (H. rufa, Vieill.); it is about 7 inches long and 13 in alar extent; glossy steel blue above, with concealed white in middle of back; it much resembles its European congener, though it has the pectoral col

lar interrupted in the middle, while in H. rustica it continues across. It inhabits North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, appearing in the southern states from the middle of February to March 1, a few at a time, reaching New England in mild seasons by the middle of May; it is welcomed as the harbinger of summer, seldom appearing before the final melting of the snow and the commencement of fine weather; as it commits no depredations on man's property, and serves him in destroying noxious insects and the teasing pests of horses and cattle, it is generally liked and protected; it is believed by some credulous people that if swallows are shot the cows give bloody milk, and that their presence in a barn prevents its being struck by lightning, concerning which Wilson says: "When the tenets of superstition lean to the side of humanity, one can readily respect them." It is gentle and easily tamed, and its twitterings are very pleasant to hear in a summer's day. The nest is made of mud or moist earth mixed with grasses, and is attached to the beams and rafters of barns and outbuildings; it is generally about 8 inches long, 6 in the greatest diameter, and from beam to outside of shell 6 to 4, weighing often more than 2 lbs.; the eggs are 4 to 6, small and long, white with a few spots of reddish brown; incubation lasts 13 days, both sexes assisting, and both occupying the nest at night until the young are hatched. This species collects in large flocks in midsummer on barns and sheds, telegraph wires, &c., chirping almost continually, and making short sallies in search of insects. They start for the south by the end of August or first of September, early on some fair morning; they do not fly high, and follow the shore or the course of rivers.-The cliff or fulvous swallow (H. lunifrons, Say) is about 5 inches long and 12 in alar extent; the crown and back are steel-blue, separated more or less broadly by a grayish collar; the chin, throat, and sides of head dark chestnut; breast grayish brown; belly white; steel-blue spot on throat; rump light chestnut, and forehead brownish white; tail slightly notched. It is found throughout North America from ocean to ocean; it is called republican swallow by Audubon, in allusion to the habit of associating to make their nests and rear the young. The nest is built under eaves and cornices, where it is partly sheltered from the rain; it is made of clay and sand, the entrance near the top, shaped like an earthen retort with the neck broken off; it is lined with straw and grass; the eggs are white with dusky spots; the nest is bravely defended by the parents. The white-bellied swallow or American house martin (H. bicolor, Vieill.) is 6 inches long and 12 in alar extent, of a glossy metallic green above and white below; it is a quarrelsome species, coming earlier in the spring than the others, but is not so common; the nest is made in a hollow tree, lined with grass and feathers, and the eggs are white with a bluish tinge; it is as widely distributed

as the others in North America, and some time before migrating southward gets very fat on myrtle berries (myrica cerifera). For the largest of the American swallows, see MARTIN. The largest of the genus hirundo is the H. Senegalensis (Linn.), from Africa, shining black above, and ruddy on the belly and hind part of back. There are many species in the East Indies, some permanent residents, others migrating to temperate Asia. Some species usually called swallows, as those which make the famous edible nests so esteemed in the East, belong among the swifts.-The bank, sand, or river swallow belongs to the genus cotyle (Boie); it is the C. riparia (Boie), and the smallest of the American species, being 44 inches long and 10 in alar extent. The bill is very flat, and extremely wide at base, gradually narrowing toward the tip; nostrils prominent and rounded; tail moderate, nearly even or very slightly forked; tarsi rather long, with a tuft of feathers near the toes behind. It is grayish brown above, sometimes approaching sooty, with paler margins; below pure white, with a band across the breast and sides like the back. It is generally distributed over America and Europe, wherever there is a sandy pit or river bank; it is hardy, the earliest to arrive in the spring, and less familiar than the other species; it hollows out a tubular gallery in the sand banks, often more than 3 feet in length, at the end of which is a larger excavation for the nest; it is called sand or bank martin in Europe. There is no appreciable difference between the European and American birds, furnishing one of the very few instances (perhaps the only one) among land birds of the same species permanently inhabiting both continents. In the rough-winged swallow (C. serripennis, Bonap.; stelgidopteryx of Baird), the 1st primary has the outer edge converted into stiffened recurved hooks, and the tarsus is without feathers. In the genus chelidon (Boie) the tail is moderate and forked, and the tarsi and long toes are clothed with downy feathers; it is peculiar to the old world. The European window swallow, house martin, or martlet (C. urbica, Boie) is 5 inches long, black above, and white below and on rump; it has the same habits as the common swallow, with a less rapid but more sweeping flight; it is more familiar, breeding even in cities; the nest is always on the outside of buildings, under the eaves or projecting parts; the eggs are white; it has no song.

SWAMMERDAM, JOHANNES, a Dutch entomologist and physician, born in Amsterdam in 1637, died in 1681. He studied medicine with his father, who was an apothecary, and at the university of Leyden. While occupied with his other studies he gave considerable attention to the natural history of insects, and made many dissections and microscropical examinations and a large collection of specimens. He obtained leave at Amsterdam to dissect the bodies of those who died in the hospital, and invented the mode for the preparation of hol

low organs now usually employed in anatomy. He published a "General History of Insects" (1663); "The Natural History of Bees" (1673); and a "History of the Ephemeras" (1675). His entomological collection was divided at his death and sold in small portions to different purchasers. Boerhaave, who edited his works and wrote his life, esteemed his "History of Insects" incomparably superior to any thing that had preceded it. An English translation of his entomological works by T. Floyd was published in 1758.

SWAN, a well known web-footed bird of the duck family, and the type of the sub-family cygnina, embracing some of the largest and most graceful of aquatic birds. The bill and feet are much like those of the ducks, the former being stout, of nearly equal width throughout, and with a comparatively small nail; the neck very long, and the legs short; wings long and powerful, 2d and 3d quills equal and longest, a blow from them having been known to break a man's arm; tail short and rounded; eyes small and near the bill. They perform long migrations, flying in single files uniting at an acute angle; the diet is chiefly vegetable, consisting of grass, roots, and seeds, in search of which they submerge the head only, keeping it under water 3 to 5 minutes at a time; they also devour aquatic worms and insects, young frogs, and probably small fish; the intestines are long, as in the vegetable feeders; they are gregarious at all seasons of the year, awkward on land, but rapid and high fliers; they are remarkably careful to keep their plumage, which is generally white, free from dirt of all kinds. The nest is bulky, of grass and coarse materials, placed on the ground among the rushes and near the water; it is sometimes raised a foot or more to avoid inundations; the male guards the nest, assists the female in the care of the young, and boldly defends them even against predaceous animals and man; the eggs are 5 to 8, and incubation lasts 6 weeks. -In the typical genus cygnus (Linn.) the bill is longer than the head, the base covered by a soft skin extending to the anterior half of the eyes, and the nostrils in the middle portion; lower part of tibia bare; tarsus much shorter than the foot, compressed and scaly; webs full; hind toe small, much elevated, with a narrow lobe; tail of 20 to 24 feathers, rounded or wedge-shaped; sexes similarly colored, but the females the smallest. Wagler has divided the old genus cygnus into two, cygnus and olor, according as there is or is not a swollen fleshy tubercle at the base of the bill; in the former also the lamella of the edges of the bill are visibly projecting, and in the latter not; in the former belongs the tame swan of Europe, and in the latter the wild swan and both the North American species. The European wild or whooping swan (C. ferus, Ray) is 4 to 4 feet long, white, with the head and neck tinged with yellowish, and a black bill, yellowish at the base and without tubercle; it is a winter

visitor in Great Britain, migrating northward in the spring to Lapland, Russia, Siberia, &c., where it breeds; the young are brownish gray. The male has a peculiar note resembling the word "hoop," repeated several times in succession, the intensity greatly increased by the convolutions of the windpipe, which, after penetrating the keel of the breast bone to its posterior portion, is bent forward again to the front of this bone before going to the lungs; this anatomical peculiarity is not found in the tame swan, which has a soft and plaintive voice. Though praised by the poets for its gentleness and beauty, it is cruel and vindictive, the males fighting savagely at pairing time, and the female with young attacking every thing which approaches her nest; it can repel any bird, even the eagle, and in fighting the combatants try to drown one another by holding the rival's head under water, often with fatal effect. Though heavy and rather slow fliers, they rise to a great height, uttering a loud, harsh, and trumpet-like note when sailing high in the air; when enraged or alarmed they can swim faster than a man can walk. This bird was sacred to Apollo, and was the bird of the Muses; it was strangely celebrated for its melodious song, especially at the time of its death; the sound of its wings at a distance is loud and not unmusical, and even its harsh scream may appear pleasant to the Icelander and other northern nations, as the flocks arrive in the spring, announcing the end of the dreary winter; but as far as southern Europe is concerned, its song is a mere fable. The flesh is dark and tough, and, though prominent at ancient feasts, was probably more for ostentation than consumption.-The European tame swan (C. olor, Gmel.) has a red bill, with black tip and sides, and a tubercle at the base; the trachea has no convolutions. It is generally distributed over Europe and America as an ornamental bird; it was well known to the ancients, and by the poets was sung as the model of grace and the bird of love, and represented as attached to the car of Venus; its flesh was served with great pomp at their public feasts. It is a large and handsome species, a permanent resident in temperate Europe; in Great Britain from remote periods it has been protected by preservative laws, whose infringement was punished by fine and imprisonment; the male is called a cob and the female a pen; its life is said to extend to a century. The young have a gray plumage and a lead-colored bill; their flesh is sometimes eaten at the present day, and when properly cooked is said to be delicious, with a flavor between that of the goose and of the hare. As an ornamental bird nothing is more pleasing than the swan, an emblem of peace, quiet, and refinement, as it swims slowly over the surface of a placid lake. The most prized are brought to the United States from Hamburg, and are generally what are called Polish swans (C. immutabilis, Yarr.), from the Baltic shores, noted for having white cygnets. Bewick's swan (C.

minor, Pall.) is a smaller, wild species, making considerable noise in its migrations, and a winter visitor in Great Britain.-The American or whistling swan (C. Americanus, Sharpless) is 55 inches long and about 7 feet in alar extent, with a bill of 4 inches; the bill is as long as the head, high at the base, the feathers on the forehead ending in a semicircular outline; the nostrils far forward; tail of 20 feathers; the adult is pure white with bill and legs black, and an orange or yellowish spot in front of the eye; young birds are brownish, especially on the head; they are 5 or 6 years in coming to maturity. This species is spread over the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific; many are shot in winter and spring on the coasts of Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware; they are very watchful when feeding, one always acting as sentinel; they fly in an angle, each line in single file, the leading bird as he gets weary retiring to the rear. The nest is described as made of moss, peat, and sticks, 5 to 6 feet long, 4 wide, and 2 high, with the cavity 13 in diameter; the eggs are brownish white, clouded with darker. The trumpeter swan (C. buccinator, Rich.) is about 5 feet long and 7 in alar extent, with the bill 4 inches; bill longer than the head, the feathers on the forehead with a semi-elliptical outline; nostrils with the anterior extremity only as far forward as the middle of the commissure; tail with 24 feathers; the adults are pure white, the legs and bill entirely black, the latter without any red spot at base. It is found from the Mississippi valley to the Pacific, appearing on the lower Ohio about the end of October, and going south when the ice gets thick; it is very common in the fur countries, breeding as low as lat. 61° N. As its name imports, the note is more sonorous than in the whistling swan; it is not so wary as the last named species; as in all swans, during flight the neck and legs are stretched at full length; it is the principal source of the fine down so much prized for muffs and tippets.-The black-necked swan (C. nigricollis, Steph.), of South America, has the head and neck black and the bill red. The C. coscoraba (Mol.), also South American, has the lores feathered.-A black swan, once considered as apocryphal as a white crow, inhabits Australia, that land of strange animals; the chenopis atrata (Wagl.), of that continent and Tasmania, is black except a few white primaries and a bright red bill; it is nearly as large as the common swan, and is now not unfrequently seen with it in the parks of Europe; its dying note, far from being melodious, is, said to be like the creaking of a rusty sign on a windy day.

SWAN RIVER, a river of West Australia, which, after a N. W. and S. W. course of about 180 m., in which it several times expands into small lakes, and after passing near Guilford and the city of Perth, falls into the sea by an extensive estuary about lat. 32° S. It is subject to sudden floods which are often very destruc

tive. Swan river was first discovered in 1696 by Vlaming. In 1829 the colony now called West Australia was founded upon its banks.

SWANSEA (Welsh, Abertawy), a town and parliamentary borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated on the W. bank of the river Tawy, where it falls into the bay of Swansea, Bristol channel, 84 m. W. from Bristol; pop. in 1861, 42,581. It is much resorted to for sea bathing. There are extensive anthracite mines in the neighborhood, which, together with the convenience of the port, have caused it to be made the principal seat of the copper trade of Great Britain. Copper ore is brought from Cuba, South America, Australia, &c., to be smelted at Swansea. There are iron, tin plate, and zinc works, potteries, &c., and ship building is carried on. In 1859 there were owned here 4,772 vessels, tonnage 508,814. There are extensive docks with every convenience for loading and unloading vessels; and the first floating dock was built at Swansea in 1852. In consequence of the great height to which the tide rises vessels of large size can come close to the town at flood, but at ebb the harbor is nearly dry. Swansea is connected by railway with Milford and Gloucester, and is the terminus of the Swansea Valley railway, opened in 1860.

SWARTZ, OLOF, a Swedish botanist, born at Norrköping, East Gottland, in 1760, died in 1817. He studied medicine at Upsal, and between the years 1779 and 1782 made excursions in the various districts of Sweden to study their botany, and visited Lapland, Finland, and Gottland. In 1783 he visited the western coasts of America and the West Indies, and, after spending a year in England, returned to Sweden in 1789, and in 1790 was appointed professor of natural history in the medico-chirurgical institution of Stockholm. He added upward of 50 genera and 850 species to the list of flowering plants, beside a great number to the class of cryptogamia. He published botanical works in Latin, wrote the text of 4 volumes of the Svensk Botanik, and contributed to the "Philosophical Transactions" and the "Transactions of the Linnean Society" of London.

SWEABORG, or SVEABORG, a fortress and military post in Finland, belonging to Russia, 3 m. S. E. from Helsingfors, the approaches to which it defends; pop. 6,000. It is built upon 7 granitic islands forming an ellipse, all of them strongly fortified, and connected either by causeways or bridges of boats; they are Vargö and Gustafsvärd on the S., Wester Svartō and Langärn to the N. W., Löven and the Little Öster Svartö to the N., and the Great Öster Svartō to the N. E. The principal fort is on Vargö, and comprises a strong castle and barracks, and magazines excavated in the rock and bomb-proof. There are at some points 3 tiers of guns. The total number of cannon is 2,000, and the usual garrison of the fortress varies from 6,000 to 8,000 men, though the casemates have accommodations for 12,000. The harbor within, to which there is but one entrance, has