of the Swedish Church"), which only reaches to 1389; L. G. Anjou has published an excellent Scenska Reformationens Historia ("History of the Swedish Reformation"), which has been translated into English; and J. J. Thomæus (died 1845) has written the only complete history of the Swedish church. The teachings of Swedenborg have been zealously followed by J. Tybeck, C. U. Beurling, and A. Kahl. Swedish history has never before been so devotedly studied. Excelling all in grace and dignity of style and in philosophical treatment, if not in the critical examination of materials, the first place is due to Eric Gustaf Geijer, (1783-1847), whose Scea Rikes Häfder ("Annals of the Swedish Realm") and Svenska Folkets Historia, the former a fragment and the latter ending with the abdication of Christina, are models of historic composition. Less successful has been the Svenska Folkets Historia of A. M. Strinnholm (born 1787), reaching down to 1319. More complete is the work of Anders Fryxell (born 1795), who, under the modest title of Berättelser ur Svenska Historien ("Narratives from Swedish History"), has published a national history, in a perspicuous and not inelegant style, which extends through the reign of Charles XII. and is still continued. Special historical writers are P. A. Granberg, in his Kalmare Unionens Historia ("History of the Calmar Union"), Folkungättens Historia, and other works; G. A. Silfverstolpe (17721824), in his Svenska Statsförfattningens Historia ("History of the Swedish Constitution"); J. F. af Lundblad (born 1791), in his histories of the times of Charles X. and Charles XII.; A. Cronholm in his Väringarna ("The Varangians") and Vikingatågen ("Expeditions of the Vikings"); A. A. Afzelius in his Svenska Folkets Sagohäfder, an agreeable and interesting work on the popular superstitions, religious belief, traditions, and customs of the Swedish peasants; H. Järta, A. I. Arwidsson, and many others. Historical collections are the Handlingar rörande Skandinaviens Historia ("Transactions relating to the History of Scandinavia"), published in annual volumes since 1816; the De la Gardiska Archivet, or "Archives of the De la Gardie Family," edited by Wieselgren; and the collections issued by the brothers C. and G. Adlersparre, A. Wallmark, Kröningsvärd, G. Bonde, C. F. Rothlieb, C. G. Malmström, and several others. The foremost archeologists of the period are N. Sjöborg, author of Samlingar for Nordens Fornälskare (Collections for Lovers of the Old North"); J. G. Liljegren (died 1837), who began a Diplomatarium Scecanum, and wrote two standard works on runes, Runlära and Runurkunder; A. E. Holmberg, known by his excellent Skandinariens Hällristningar ("The Pictured Rocks of Scandinavia"), and his popular Nordbon i Hedendomen ("The Northmen in Heathen Times," 1853); B. E. Hildebrand, a learned numismatist; C. G. Brunius, and R. Dybeck. C. E. Hylten-Cavallius, H. Klemming, J. A. Ahl

strand, and others founded the FornskriftSällskap, which has edited a large number of Swedish medieval writings. Svenska Vitterhetens Historia ("History of Polite Letters in Sweden"), by L. Hammarsköld (1785-1827), an author of much research, but of erroneous views in criticism, was the first important work of its kind. It has been followed by the more extended treatise of P. Wieselgren (born 1800), Sveriges sköna Litteratur, which has some faults, but is on the whole of great value; by the excellent Svenska Siare och Skalder ("Swedish Seers and Bards") of Atterbom; by the Framfarna Dagars vittra Idrotter ("Learned Labors of Past Times") of J. E. Rydqvist; and the able manuals on Swedish literary history of C. J. Lénström. The Biographiskt Lexikon, a biographical dictionary of celebrated Swedes, edited by Palmblad and subsequently by Wieselgren, is a colossal work of great worth and research in 25 volumes. This is the brightest age in the annals of Swedish poetry. In some of the earlier verse writers of the period traces of the Gustavian school are visible; but these soon gave way to a better spirit. F. M. Franzén (1772-1847) has gained a lasting renown by his naïve and idyllic lyrics, and by his beautiful elegy on Creutz; less read are his Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland ("Gustavus Adolphus in Germany"), his fragmentary epic Columbus, and his didactic and dramatic pieces. J. O. Wallin (1779-1839), celebrated as an eloquent preacher and orator, began his poetic career with some heavy prize poems in Alexandrines and some dry didactic essays; but his style subsequently changed, and some of his shorter pieces are of great beauty. He revised in 1819 the Swedish psalm book, a collection of religious verse hardly excelled in modern hymnology, which had been previously edited by Spegel (1695), and others. Wallin added 117 psalms by himself and 73 by Franzén, inferior to none in the book. J. D. Valerius, best known by his bacchanalian songs, and J. M. Silfverstolpe (1777-1831), rather a translator than an original poet, both belonged to the earlier part of the century. Two new poetic schools, of vast influence upon polite literature, arose at the beginning of this period, the romantic and the Gothic. The former was represented by_the journals Polyfem (1810-'12), edited by J. C. Askelöf (born 1787), and Fosforos, whence its members are sometimes styled Fosforister or phosphorists. At the head of this school stood P. D. A. Atterbom (1790-1855) as a poet, and Palmblad and Hammarsköld as critics. Atterbom's long poem, Lycksalighetens Ö (“The Island of Bliss"), his Blommorna ("The Flowers"), and many of his shorter lyrics, are characterized by depth of fancy and feeling. Other Fosforister were C. F. Dahlgren (17911844), author of Mollbergs Epistlar, an imitation of the songs of Bellman; C. E. Fahlerantz (born 1790), a successful humorist in his Noaks Ark, but less happy in his religious epic, Ansgarius; and J. C. Nyberg (born 1785), a fe

equestrian order in the triennial assembly of the states. He was in his childhood the subject of deep religious impressions. He received the best education which the times and the country afforded, taking the degree of doctor of philosophy at the university of Upsal in 1709, and afterward travelled in foreign countries. In some of his early productions he displayed much poetical talent, but he was mainly devoted to the studies of mathematics and mechanics. His proficiency in these sciences brought him into intimate association with Christopher Polheim, who seems to have enjoyed the unbounded confidence of Charles XII. Swedenborg was in this way introduced to the special notice of Charles, by whom he was appointed in 1716 assessor of the royal board of mines; his commission stating that "the king had a particular regard to the knowledge he possessed in the science of mechanics, and that it was his pleasure that he should accompany and assist Polheim in constructing his various mechanical works." In 1718 he turned his mechanical skill to practical account at the siege of Frederickshald, when, by means of machines of his own invention, he contrived to transport several large vessels, over hills and valleys, a distance of about 14 miles. About this time he published several small works: a proposal for fixing the value of coin, and determining the measures of Sweden, so as to suppress fractions and facilitate calculations; a treatise on the position of the earth and planets; and some others. In 1721 he again travelled, with special reference to preparing himself for the duties of his office of assessor. During this year he published in Latin at Amsterdam six small philosophical treatises; a new edition of one of which, "A Practical Method of finding the Longitude of Places on Land and at Sea by Lunar Observations," was published by him late in life. In 1722 he published at Leipsic "Miscellaneous Observations connected with the Physical Sciences," parts i.-iii., and at Hamburg part iv., principally on minerals, iron, and the stalactites in Bauman's cavern. In 1733 he again went abroad, and in 1733-'4 published in Latin at Dresden and Leipsic his "Principia, or the First Principles of Natural Things, being new Attempts toward a Philosophical Explanation of the Elementary World" (3 vols. fol.), produced in elegant style, with copious engravings, at the expense of the duke of Brunswick. In 1740 he published at Amsterdam "The Economy of the Animal Kingdom;" and in 1744 and 1745, at Amsterdam and London, "The Animal Kingdom," and "The Worship and Love of God." These were the last of Swedenborg's philosophical works. His reputation was now established as one of the profoundest thinkers of the age, and his acquaintance and correspondence were sought by the most distinguished scholars in Europe. Čount Hopken, senator, and at one time prime minister of Sweden, says of him that "he was with

out contradiction the most learned man in my country." In 1724 the consistory of the university of Upsal invited him to accept the office of professor of pure mathematics, because, as they said, "his acceptance would be to the advantage of the students, and the ornament of the university;" which, however, he declined. In 1729 he was admitted a member of the academy of sciences of Upsal, and in 1734 was made a corresponding member of the academy of sciences of St. Petersburg. He was among the earliest members of the royal academy of sciences at Stockholm, and his portrait is in the hall of the academy as one of its past presidents, near that of Linnæus, who was one of its founders. The most important of the works above mentioned have been recently translated into English, and the English reader has been surprised at their vast amount of profound learning and original thought. It is confidently asserted by scientific men who have given them the most careful study, that a number of important discoveries in the different departments of science, which have made other names illustrious, were anticipated by him. These works afford evidence of a remarkably well balanced mind, in which the beautiful and the practical, poetry and mathematics, were harmoniously blended together. His writings always breathe a pure devotional spirit, and persons to whom he was most intimately known, of high and low rank, bear testimony to the excellence of his private character. The following rules of life were found noted down in several of his manuscripts, evidently intended for private use, as they are nowhere met with in his published works: "1. Often to read and meditate on the Word of God. 2. To submit every thing to the will of Divine Providence. 3. To observe in every thing a propriety of behavior, and always to keep the conscience clear. 4. To discharge with fidelity the functions of my employments and the duties of my office, and to render myself in all things useful to society."-Such, as we learn from the most authentic sources, was Swedenborg in the year 1745, at the age of 57, in the full maturity of his powers and his fame. In this year, as he assures us, "he was called to a new and holy office by the Lord himself, who manifested himself to him in person, and opened his sight to a view of the spiritual world, and granted him the privilege of conversing with spirits and angels." No one at all conversant with Swedenborg's writings and character can doubt his sincerity. He regarded his previous studies as having answered their great purpose, as a means of preparation for the far higher use in which he was to be henceforth employed, and in his subsequent writings makes no allusion to his philosophical works. As his office was mainly to reveal the spiritual sense of the Sacred Scriptures, he thenceforth made these his constant and exclusive study. He now commenced the study of the Hebrew, with which he made himself acquainted, that he

might read the Old Testament in the original language. It is said that no other books were seen in his study, except the Hebrew and Greek Bibles, and the indexes to his own works which he used for the convenience of reference. There was not the slightest appearance of enthusiasm, but he proceeded in the most deliberate manner; the divine assistance, which he said was vouchsafed to him, not seem ing in the least to supersede the exercise of his own mental powers. Neither does he appear to have been in the least elated by his exalted office, but more humble. "This knowledge," he said, "is given to me from our Saviour, not for any particular merit of mine, but for the great concern of the salvation and happiness of all Christians." There was no appeal to the weakness or credulity of the ignorant or the vulgar. Indeed, there was no attempt to make proselytes at all. He had no desire to be the head of a sect, or to connect his own name with the new church which he said was about to be established. He evidently felt as if he were addressing posterity rather than those of the present age; and his works, as they left the press in Latin folio volumes, were distributed by him gratuitously to the universities of Europe, and among the learned, especially the clergy. In 1747 he asked and obtained leave of Frederic, then king of Sweden, to retire from the office of assessor, a place which he had filled for 31 years. He also requested that one half of his salary should be continued to him, which was readily granted. He says: "My sole object in this resignation was, that I might be more at liberty to devote myself to that new function to which the Lord had called me. On resigning my office, a higher degree of rank was offered me, but this I declined lest it should be the occasion of inspiring me with pride." After 4 years of labor and preparation, the first volume of his theological works appeared in 1749, under the title of Arcana Calestia, or Heavenly Arcana, which are contained in the Sacred Scripture, or Word of the Lord, laid open, beginning with Genesis, together with relations of Wonderful Things seen in the World of Spirits and the Heaven of Angels." He was fully aware of the incredulity with which the work would be received with very few exceptions, as he himself tells us. "It is not unknown to me," he says, "that many will say that a man can never speak with spirits and angels while he lives in the body; and many that it is fantasy; others that I relate such things to gain credit, others other things; but I do not hesitate on this account, for I have seen, have heard, have touched." It appears by the original advertisement of the publisher, that he paid £200 for the publication of the first volume of the Arcana, and also advanced £200 for the second, and gave direction that all receipts from the sales of the work should be given "toward the charge of the propagation of the gospel." This work, like most of his other theological works, was

published without the name of the author. The publication of the Arcana Calestia, commenced in London in 1749, was completed in 1756, in 8 vols. 4to., setting forth the spiritual sense, in a connected series, of Genesis and Exodus, with explanations of the signification of numerous other passages, which are introduced from other parts of the Scriptures, together with "relations of things seen and heard in the spiritual world," which are found between the chapters. This is much the largest of his theological works. Like all the rest, it is written in good medieval Latin, divided into distinct paragraphs, all of which are numbered, having copious references from one paragraph to others, in the same or different works, where the subject is treated of. Remarkable method and consistency prevail throughout the whole. In 1758 Swedenborg was again in London, where he published the following named works: 1, "Account of the Last Judg. ment and the Destruction of Babylon, showing that all the predictions in the Apocalypse are at this time fulfilled, being a relation of things heard and seen;" 2, "Concerning Heaven and its Wonders, and concerning Hell, from things heard and seen;" 3, "On the White Horse mentioned in the Apocalypse:" 4, "On the Planets in our Solar System, and on those in the Starry Heavens, with an Account of their Inhabitants and of their Spirits and Angels;" 5, "On the New Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine, as revealed from Heaven." In 1763 he published at Amsterdam: 1, "The Doctrine of the New Jerusalem respecting the Lord;" 2, "The Doctrine of the New Jerusalem respecting the Sacred Scripture;" 3, "The Doctrine of the New Jerusalem respecting Faith;" 4, "The Doctrine of Life for the New Jerusalem;" 5, "Continuation respecting the Last Judgment and the Destruction of Babylon:" 6, "Angelic Wisdom concerning the Divine Love and Wisdom." In 1764 he published at the same place "Angelic Wisdom concerning the Divine Providence," and in 1766 "The Apocalypse Revealed." He had nearly prepared for the press a much larger work than that last mentioned, in explanation of the Apocalypse, under the title of "The Apocalypse Explained," which he seems to have laid aside for the other. This work has been published since his death, in 4 vols. 4to., containing about half as much matter as the Arcana Calestia. In 1768, at the age of 80, he proceeded to Amsterdam, where he published the work entitled "The Delights of Wisdom concerning Conjugial Love; after which follow the Pleasures of Insanity concerning Scortatory Love." This was followed in 1769 by the "Brief Exposition of the Doctrine of the New Church," and by the little work entitled "The Intercourse between the Soul and the Body," usually known as the "Treatise on Influx." His last work was published at Amsterdam in 1771, under the title of "The True Christian Religion, containing the Universal Theology of the New Church

foretold by the Lord in Daniel, chap. xii. 13, 14, and in the Apocalypse, chap. xxi. 1, 2." This work contains, as its name implies, a complete summary of the doctrines of the New Church. In addition to the works mentioned, he left voluminous manuscripts, which after his death were deposited in the library of the royal academy of sciences at Stockholm, many of which have since been edited and published by Dr. J. F. I. Tafel, professor and librarian in the university of Tübingen. A general summary of the doctrines contained in Swedenborg's theological writings may be found in the article NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH. By far the greater part of them are devoted to the explanation of the spiritual sense of the Sacred Scriptures, and all may be said to be directly or indirectly connected with that subject. Af ter the publication of the "True Christian Religion," Swedenborg went to London, where he seems to have been employed in the preparation of a supplement to that work, entitled "The Coronis or Appendix to the True Christian Religion." On Christmas eve, 1771, he was struck with apoplexy, from which he partially recovered, and remained in complete possession of his mental faculties till the time of his death. The number of those who received the doctrines promulgated by Swedenborg during his life was very small, but among them were men, both in his own country and in England, distinguished alike for their learning and the purity of their lives, who enjoyed the opportunity of intimate relations with him. Of this number may be named Count Andrew John von Hopken, and Dr. Gabriel Andrew Beyer, professor of Greek literature and member of the consistory of Gothenburg, in Sweden; and in England, the Rev. Thomas Hartley, rector of Winwick in Northamptonshire, who was the first translator into English of some of his theological works, of which a copious index was made by Dr. Beyer. Dr. Hartley visited Swedenborg in his last sickness, a short time before his death, in company with Dr. Mossiter, a distinguished physician in London, and asked him "to declare whether all he had written was strictly true, or whether any part or parts thereof were to be excepted;" to which he replied with warmth: "I have written nothing but the truth, as you will have it more confirmed hereafter all the days of your life, provided you always keep close to the Lord, and faithfully serve him alone, in shunning evils of all kinds as sins against him, and diligently search his Word, which from beginning to end bears incontestable testimony to the truth of the doctrines I have delivered to the world." There are a number of well authenticated cases in which Swedenborg communicated facts, his knowledge of which is deemed by the receivers of his doctrines wholly inexplicable without supposing him to have had communication with the spiritual world. He never sought however to make any demonstrations of this kind, nor does he anywhere in his pub

lished works appeal to them as evidence of his mission or of the truth of his doctrines, or even mention them. They seem to have been mere incidents of his life. Swedenborg enjoyed the friendship and confidence of the reigning monarchs of Sweden, from Charles XII. onward to the time of his death. His character, however, was marked by the constant absence of all desire for personal distinction or self-aggrandizement, and his habits of life were of the most simple and unostentatious kind. He was never married.-Several lives of Swedenborg have been published, among which in English are the following: "Life of Emanuel Swedenborg, with some Account of his Writings," by B. F. Barrett (New York, 1841); "Biographical Sketch of Emanuel Swedenborg, with an Account of his Works," by Elihu Rich (London, 1849); "Emanuel Swedenborg, a Biography," by James John Garth Wilkinson (London and Boston, 1849); Hobart's "Life of Swedenborg" (Boston, 1831 and 1862). The last named work has passed through many editions, and is generally regarded by the receivers of Swedenborg's teachings as the fullest and most authentic of these biographies. SWEET BAY. See LAUREL. SWEET BRIER. See EGLANTINE. SWEET GUM. See HACKBERRY. SWEET POTATO. See POTATO.

SWENKENSUND, or SVENKSUND, a sound of the gulf of Finland, lying between Viborg and Frederiksham. Gustavus III., king of Sweden, was defeated here by the prince of Nassau-Siegen in 1789, and conquered him there in turn the succeeding year. On the coast of the sound is the town of Svenksund, with about 1,900 inhabitants.

SWETT, JOHN APPLETON, M.D., an American physician, born in Boston in Dec. 1808, died in New York, Sept. 18, 1854. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1828, and commenced immediately a course of medical study in the office of Dr. Jacob Bigelow of Boston, attended the lectures of the Harvard medical school, and took his degree of M.D. in 1831. Soon afterward he opened an office in New York city, and became connected with the city dispensary. The death of his father having put him in possession of a small property, he resolved to prosecute his medical studies further in the hospitals of Paris, and accordingly sailed for Europe June 12, 1835, and spent nearly the whole of the next 17 months in close clinical study, giving his attention principally to the clinical lectures of the celebrated Louis at La Pitié. In the spring of 1838 Dr. Swett associated himself with several other young physicians of the city in the delivery of an extra-academical course of lectures, his topic being "Diseases of the Chest." This association, known at the time as the Broome street school of medicine, was maintained through two years, courses of lectures being delivered in the spring and autumn. In 1841 several of its members, including Dr. Swett, commenced