his essays is his Mémoire sur les relations commerciales des États Unis vers 1797. He left personal memoirs, which are supposed to throw considerable light upon the events in which he participated, and are to be published, according to his will, 30 years after his death, that is to say, in 1868.

TALLIEN, JEAN LAMBERT, a French revolu tionist, born in Paris in 1769, died Nov. 20, 1820. He was the son of the house steward of the marquis de Bercy, who gave him the means of a classical education, and when the revolution broke out was for a while connected with the newly established Moniteur as proof-reader. In 1791 he started a newspaper of his own, L'ami du citoyen, which passed unnoticed, became a member of the Jacobin club, was appointed clerk of the commune, Aug. 10, 1792, and was elected deputy to the convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise. He took his seat among the montagnards, evinced some oratorical talent, voted for the death of Louis XVI., and proved one of the bitterest opponents of the Girondists. Being sent on a mission to Bordeaux in 1794, he became acquainted with Mme. de Fontenay, one of the most fascinating women of her age, then a prisoner on account of her suspected royalism, and whom he married on his return to Paris. His love for her somewhat abated his revolutionary fervor, and Bordeaux was treated with comparative mildness. This, in conjunction with his known friendship for Danton, awoke the suspicions of Robespierre; his wife was again imprisoned, and was in peril of her life, when, yielding to her entreaties, he resolved upon overthrowing the tyrant. After securing the combined assistance of Robespierre's enemies, he denounced him in a virulent speech on the 9th Thermidor, and by unfaltering energy succeeded in procuring from the convention an order of arrest against the dictator, and then bringing him to the scaffold. This triumph made him the leader of the Thermidorians; through his influence Fouquier-Tinville, Carrier, and Lebon were doomed to condign punishment; and through his energy the revolutionary attempt of the 1st Prairial was baffled. As commissary of the convention near the army of the west in 1795, he ordered all the royalist prisoners made by Hoche on the Quiberon peninsula to be shot. On the 13th Vendémiaire he was among the unterrified defenders of the convention against the rebellious sections of Paris. After the establishment of the directorial government he was a member of the council of 500, and shared in the republican coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor. In 1798 he sailed with Bonaparte for Egypt, as one of the committee of scientific men, and held there a high administrative office. While returning to France he was taken prisoner by the English, and welcomed to London by the whig party. When he finally reentered France, his fortune changed. Bonaparte treated him coldly and declined granting him any office;

his wife was divorced from him, afterward becoming the princess of Chimay (see CHIMAY); and he was neglected by all. In 1805 he was appointed consul to Alicante; but sickness obliged him to return to Paris, where he received a paltry pension from Napoleon. This he lost in 1814, and would have starved had he not received some help from his old friend Barras.

TALLMADGE, BENJAMIN, an American revolutionary officer, born in Setauket, Long island, Feb. 25, 1754, died in Litchfield, Conn., March 7, 1835. He was graduated at Yale college in 1773, entered the continental army at the commencement of the revolution, attained the rank of major after much active service, and was stationed at North Castle, Westchester co., N. Y., at the time of the capture of Major André, who was placed in his custody until his execution. In 1780 he planned and conducted the expedition which resulted in the taking of Fort George at Oyster Bay, and the destruction of the British stores on Long islland. He held intimate relations with Washington, and retired from the army with the rank of colonel. He afterward engaged in mercantile business at Litchfield, Conn., and from 1801 to 1817 was a member of congress.

TALLMADGE, JAMES, LL.D., an American statesman, born in Stamford, Dutchess co., N. Y., Jan. 28, 1778, died in New York, Sept. 29, 1853. He was graduated at Brown university in 1798, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in New York. He was for some years private secretary of Gov. George Clinton, and in the war of 1812 was appointed brigadiergeneral and placed in command of a part of the force stationed for the defence of the city of New York. In 1817 he was elected to congress from Dutchess co., and was a prominent debater and actor in the stormy scenes which preceded the passage of the Missouri compromise bill, advocating the restriction of slavery in the region west of the Mississippi. He declined a reëlection. In 1821 he was an active member of the state constitutional convention, in 1824 was a member of the legislature, in 1825 was elected lieutenant-governor, and in 1846 was a member of the state constitutional convention. From 1833 till his death, with the exception of two years, Mr. Tallmadge was president of the American institute. In 1835 he visited Europe. He introduced American cotton machinery into Russia, and collected there and elsewhere maps and specimens of natural products for the institute. He was one of the founders of the university of the city of New York, and received from it the honorary degree of LL.D. in 1841.

TALLOW, the fat of quadrupeds, separated from the fibrous matters by melting it down, a process called rendering or trying out. It consists of a little more than stearine, and is largely employed in the manufacture of candles and soap, the dressing of leather, &c. It is obtained of various degrees of purity according to the care with which it is prepared.

When pure it is white and tasteless and has a peculiar odor. It is an important article of commerce, the largest supplies being furnish ed by Russia, amounting to an average of about 136,160,000 lbs. annually, at the value of about $15,500,000. It is brought to St. Petersburg from the interior, much of the best coming from Siberia. The cattle that furnish it are there fed the greater part of the year on dry fodder, and this is said to be the cause of the superior hardness of the Russian tallow. The largest portion of the exports are to England; the rest to Prussia, France, the Hanse towns, Turkey, &c. The computed value of the importations of tallow into England in 1858 was £3,042,381, of which £2,460,275 was of Russian tallow, and £115,710 of Australian mutton tallow. In 1860 they amounted to £4,014,280. The import from the United States into Great Britain in 1860 was 8,748,961 lbs., valued at $901,371. The total export from the United States during the same year was 15,269,535 lbs., value $1,598,176.-A vegetable tallow is obtained on boiling the berries and other fruits of various plants. (See TALLOW TREE.)

TALLOW TREE (Stillingia sebifera, Linn.), a Chinese tree belonging to the family of the euphorbiacea, from 20 to 40 feet high. It has very smooth branches, and long-petioled, rhomboidal, acuminate entire leaves, of about equal length and breadth (from 2 to 4 inches), and conspicuously pointed. The sterile flowers are small and numerous; the fruit is attached to a stalk, and is about 3 of an inch in diameter. It is cultivated in Great Britain and America in hothouses. The fatty matter is obtained from the seed vessels and seeds, which are bruised and boiled in water, when the particles of fat rise to the surface. When cold it is of about the consistence of tallow, and beautifully white. The Chinese use it for candles, combining with it either wax or the wax-like product of the ligustrum lucidum, in order to give it greater hardness. It burns freely, and gives a clear light. It is also used for medicinal purposes.

TALMA, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH, a French tragic actor, born in Paris, Jan. 15, 1763, died there, Oct. 19, 1826. The son of a dentist who removed to London, he passed his childhood there, and returned when 9 years old to France, where he completed his collegiate education. He early evinced a taste for the stage, and after pursuing his father's profession for 18 months he took lessons from Molé, Dugazon, and Fleury. In 1787 he appeared at the théâtre Français in the subordinate part of Séïde in Voltaire's Mahomet, making a deep impression, and two years later became a partner in the association of comedians who were attached to that theatre. He at once attempted to substitute contemporary historical dresses for the fancy costumes then worn, and finally accomplished a complete reform. His first original creation was the principal part in Joseph Chénier's Charles IX.; and while his success steadily increased, he assiduously studied the improve

ment of his style of acting. He listened willingly to critical observations, and sought the society of such learned men and artists as could give him thorough instruction. Among those whom he saw intimately during the revolution were Louis David, the painter, and Bonaparte, then a young and poor officer, who more than once borrowed a few louis from the more prosperous comedian. Bonaparte never forgot his kindness, and when in power treated him always with special favor. Beside the parts he performed in Lafosse's Manlius, Racine's Iphigénie and Britannicus, and Voltaire's Edipe, which he successively brought as near as possible to perfection, he won great applause in Chénier's Henri VIII., and above all in Ducis' Hamlet, Othello, and Abufar; and under the empire he was frequently called to appear before the numerous emperors, kings, and princes whom Napoleon brought together. During the restoration, his known partiality for liberal opinions and the fallen government enhanced his popularity among the younger class of the nation, and some of his performances were political manifestations in disguise; such was especially his appearance in Jouy's Sylla, in which his striking resemblance to Napoleon made an unheard of sensation. Since 1796 he had devoted his undivided attention to tragedy; but in 1823 he appeared as Damville in Casimir Delavigne's comedy L'école des vieillards, in which he proved a worthy associate of Mile. Mars. His last and perhaps most perfect tragic creation was the part of Charles VI. in Delaville's tragedy of that name; here it was that he evinced all his powers, and above all that dignity of manner and elocution which was so true to nature, and consequently so impressive. In 1855 a statue by David d'Angers, representing Talma in his great part of Sylla, was placed in the Tuileries garden. The great actor left a very interesting pamphlet entitled Réflexions sur Lekain et sur l'art théatral (8vo., 1825; reprinted in 1856). His biography has been written by Moreau, Mémoires historiques et littéraires sur Talma (8vo., Paris, 3d ed., 1827).

TALMUD (late Heb., study), the collective name of the Mishna and Gemara, containing the oral law and other traditions of the Jews. (See MISHNA, and HEBREWS, vol. ix. p. 41.) In à limited sense the term is used of the Gemara alone. There are two Gemaras (or Talmuds), the Palestinian (Yerushalmi, of Jerusalem) and the Babylonian (Babli). The former contains comments on 39, and the latter on 36 treatises of the Mishna. The Babylonian, which is of later date, is the principal authority. The chief commentator is Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, known under the abbreviation Rashi. The best compendium of Talmudical decisions is the Mishneh torah of Maimonides. The editions of the Talmud, mostly in 12 folio volumes, including the most important commentaries and notes, are very numerous. One of the fullest is now (1862) in course of publication in Warsaw.

TAMA, an E. co. of Iowa, intersected by the Iowa river; area, 720 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 5,285. The surface is undulating and the soil highly fertile and well timbered. There are a number of rich valleys along the streams. The productions in 1859 were 28,937 bushels of wheat, 256,697 of Indian corn, 10,412 of oats, 110,472 lbs. of butter, and 11,205 gallons of sorghum molasses. There is good water power for manufacturing purposes, though it is not much used yet. It is intersected by the proposed route of the Chicago, Iowa, and Nebraska railroad. Capital, Toledo.

TAMAQUA, a town of Schuylkill co., Penn., on the Little Schuylkill river, 16 m. E. N. E. from Pottsville, and 73 m. N. E. from Harrisburg; pop. in 1861, 4,919. It is situated in a rich coal and iron region, and has 3 founderies and machine shops, 6 collieries, gas and water works, a bank, a newspaper, and 9 churches, viz.: 2 Methodist, and 1 each Congregational, Episcopal, Evangelical, German Reformed, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic. The Cattawissa and the Little Schuylkill railroads pass through the town.

TAMARIND TREE (tamarindus, from the Arabic tamarhendi, Indian date), a tropical exogen of the natural order leguminosa, having pale green pinnate leaves, the flowers with 3 yellow petals streaked with red, which are alternate with the 3 upper lobes of a calyx having 5 divisions, the middle petal cucullate and the lateral ones ovate, the stamens 9 or 10, of which 2 or 3, larger than the rest, are united at the base and bear anthers, the remainder being sterile; the fruit a hard-shelled pod (legume) supported on a footstalk, 1-celled, compressed, containing 3 to 6 seeds, which are of a somewhat square form and lie within an acid pulp. The oriental tamarind (T. Indica, Linn.) is a handsome tree with wide-spreading branches, its wood hard, heavy, and firm, and useful as timber. Its fruit pods are large, and 6 times longer than broad; the acid pulp which they contain is dried in the sun and consumed at home, or salted or dried in copper ovens for exportation. In Africa, Arabia, and India this pulp is invaluable to travellers, both as a cooling food and in the preparation of a refreshing drink. Even the hard seeds, after parting with their astringent skins, are boiled or dried, and eaten in times of scarcity, in flavor resembling the field bean. The western tamarind (T. occidentalis, Linn.) is found wild in the West Indies and South America, and is to be distinguished by its pods, which are not more than 3 times longer than they are broad. It is also a large tree with spreading branches, pale green foliage, and yellow-petalled and purple-stamened flowers. A rude sort of preserve is made of its fruit, by removing the shells and packing the pulp in layers with sugar between, or by pouring boiling sirup over them, which penetrates to the bottom.—The value of tamarinds in medicinal uses is well known, their properties being nutritive, refrigerant, and laxative.

TAMARISK, the name of delicate and beautiful shrubs and herbs with polypetalous flowers, many-leaved calyx, hypogynous petals, distinct styles, and consolidated fruit. They are grouped under a distinct order of tamariscineo by Desvaux, other eminent botanists not entirely agreeing in respect to their alliance with other families. The species mostly cultivated in gardens is the French tamarisk (tamarix Gallica), a native of Spain, France, and Italy. It is a highly elegant shrub, 12 to 15 feet high, with deciduous, very narrow, and fine scaly leaves of a light green; flowers small, pale red, growing in spikes near the extremities of the branches, and so numerous as to give the appearance of panicles. When in full blossom, scarcely any other shrub can be compared with it in beauty, uniting lightness and grace with elegance. Even the bark and twigs are conspicuous for their pleasant purple or red color. The German tamarisk (T. Germanica) grows only about 8 feet high; its branches are more upright, very brittle, and odorous, its bark smooth and yellowish; but the spikes of flowers and the small foliage render it equally desirable. Both are readily propagated from cuttings, and grow best in a light, rich soil. All the tamarisks are exclusively confined to the northern hemisphere of the old world, extending as far as the Cape Verd islands. They were early introduced into gardens in Britain, though preferring in their native habits the sea shore or the banks of rivers and torrents. Their bark is astringent, and abundance of sulphate of soda has been noticed in its ashes. Manna is produced by an aphis or coccus which feeds upon a species growing in the East. Salt is secreted from several, and in medicine and the art of dyeing the galls found on particular species are valuable.

TAMAULIPAS (formerly New Santander), an E. state of Mexico, bounded N. by the state of Coahuila and Texas, E. by the gulf of Mexico, S. by Vera Cruz, and W. by San Luis Potosi and New Leon; area, 29,314 sq. m.; pop. 147,133. The chief towns are Victoria, the capital, and Tampico. The coast is low and sandy, and several lagoons extend along the shore, the largest being Lake del Madre, which is upward of 100 m. long, and in some places 20 m. wide. The Rio Grande del Norte forms the northern boundary line, and the other streams of greatest importance are the Fernando or Tigre, Borbon, Santander, and Tampico; the mouths of all are so much encumbered with bars that they are almost useless for navigation. In the northern part of the state the flat country extends inland for some distance from the shore, and the surface then rises into elevated plains; but in the south it is diversified by numerous mountains and fine valleys. During the hot season the climate on the coast is unhealthy, but in the elevated parts of the interior it is temperate and agreeable. A great deal of the soil is fertile, and large numbers of cattle and sheep are reared.

of stunted hickories and oaks. The song is like the syllables "chicky, chucky, chuck," and is chiefly at night; the food consists of insects, especially large beetles, taken on the wing; the nest is rudely made and insecurely fastened to its supporting branch; the eggs are 4 or 5, light blue, and are incubated for 12 days by both sexes. The Louisiana tanager (P. Ludoviciana, Bonap.) is about the same size as the last; the male is yellow, and the middle of the back, wings, and tail black; head and neck tinged with red; 2 bands of yellowish across the wings, and tertials edged with whitish; female olive green above, yellowish below, with dark brown wings and tail. It is found from Kansas to the Pacific and south to Mexico; it has a pleasing warble.-In the genus tanagra (Linn.) the bill is short, elevated at base, rather triangular; the wings moderate, with the 3d and 4th quills longest. There are many species, all South American, living in troops, and often committing serious depredations in orchards and gardens by destroying buds and fruits; the nest is carelessly made. The bishop tanager (T. episcopus, Linn.) is purplish violet, with the small wing coverts bluish white, the middle shaded with violet, the larger ashy, and the wings and tail blackish bordered with blue.In the genus ramphopis (Vieill.) the lower mandible is dilated at the base, with a horny covering produced beyond the upper. The Brazilian tanager (R. Brasilia, Vieill.) is a very beautiful bird, of a deep scarlet or carmine color, with brown wings and tail; bill brownish, except the base of the lower mandible, which is white.—In the genus euphonia (Desm.) the bill is short, broad, depressed at base, arched and keeled; wings moderate, the 1st and 2d quills longest; tail short and even. They live in small troops on the top of forest trees in tropical America, principally near rivers; they are very active and restless; there are about 30 species, the prevailing colors of which are black, blue, and yellowish. The organist tanager (E. musica, Desm.) is about 4 inches long, the male beautifully varied with black and orange; it is found in the West Indies, and is remarkable for the sweetness and great compass of its voice; it is very shy and difficult to obtain. The blue-headed tanager (E. elegantissima, Gray) is 44 inches long; the sides of head and neck, chin, throat, and upper parts generally, are steel bluish black; top of head and semicollar behind opaque blue; beneath yellowish brown tinged with chestnut; forehead dark chestnut, margined behind with blue. It is found from northern Mexico to Guatemala, and probably in California. In the genus calliste (Boie) the bill is short and slender; wings lengthened, 2d and 3d quills longest; tail short and nearly even. There are more than 30 species in the warm and damp forests of South America; they are generally seen on the tops of palm and other high trees, and are almost all richly colored. The blue-throated tanager (C. festiva, Boie) has the throat and crown

blue; forehead and under bill and upper back black; scarlet collar, widest on sides of neck; rest of plumage parrot green; it is about 4 inches long.

TANAIS. See DON.

TANCRED, one of the heroes of the first crusade, born in 1078, died in Antioch in 1112. He was a son of the marquis Odo or Ottobonus and of Emma, a daughter of Tancred de Hauteville, and sister of the celebrated Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia. He took the cross under his cousin Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, made over his heritage to his younger brother, and embarked in 1096 from Taranto. In the plains of Chalcedon his troops joined those of Godfrey of Bouillon, and with that leader he soon formed an acquaintance and an intimate friendship. At the siege of Nice in 1097 he distinguished himself by his daring, at the battle of Dorylæum saved the army of the cross from total destruction, and after the taking of Nice led the advanced guard of the crusading host through the unknown and desert countries of Asia Minor. He took possession of Tarsus and Menistra, to both of which Baldwin laid claim, giving rise to a bitter quarrel; but they were not long afterward reconciled. He achieved great distinction during the long siege of Antioch; and at the storming of Jerusalem he was with his men the first to mount the walls. In the horrible scenes of carnage and rapine which followed, he alone of the Christian knights manifested any sentiments of compassion, and at the risk of his own life he saved the lives of thousands of the captured. When the sultan of Egypt marched toward Jerusalem, Tancred defeated his advanced guard, and he shared in the subsequent victory at Ascalon, Aug. 12, 1099. He afterward took Tiberias on the sea of Gennesareth and beleaguered Jaffa, and was made prince of Tiberias or Galilee. Bohemond, now prince of Antioch, being taken prisoner by the Saracens, Tancred marched to his relief, and administered his government during his detention; and when the former after his release went to Europe to arm the West against the Byzantine empire, he left the defence of Antioch to Tancred. During his absence his principality was attacked on all sides, but was heroically defended by his kinsman, who reduced Artesia, besieged Tripoli in 1109, and subsequently withstood in Antioch a severe siege from the Saracens. Long and anxiously he awaited the arrival of Bohemond, but that prince died at Salerno, and the vast host he had collected was scattered. Tancred now resumed the offensive, defeated the Saracens, and forced the sultan to recross the Euphrates. This was his last work. His exploits have been celebrated, partly in prose, partly in verse, by Raoul de Caen, in Les gestes de Tancrède; but to the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso is due the romantic_interest which now belongs to his name. His love for Clorinda, described in that epic, is an invention of the poet.