tail coverts black, with a patch of buff white on each side; wing coverts plain olive gray; in the female the under parts are white, and the upper dark brown with gray edgings. It occurs over the whole of North America, and accidentally in Europe; it migrates principally over the land, breeding from the great lakes to the fur countries; it runs well, is a good swimmer and diver, and a very rapid and graceful flier; having a comparatively long neck, it feeds while swimming, and, being choice in its selection of food, affords a delicious flesh, much superior, according to Audubon, to that of the canvas-back; it is not very shy; the eggs are 14 by 13 inches, much rounded, dull yellowish with indistinct deeper tints. The English teal (N. crecca, Kaup) differs from the above in having no white crescent in front of the bend of the wings; the elongated scapulars are velvet black externally and creamy white internally; this has occasionally been observed on the E. coast of the United States.-In the genus querquedula the bill widens a little to the end, which is obtusely rounded, is higher than broad at base, has a wider nail and the lamellæ visible on the sides. There are about half a dozen species in North America, Europe, and Asia, with habits similar to those of the other genus. The blue-winged teal (Q. discors, Steph.) is 16 inches long, 24 or 25 in alar extent, with a bill of 13; the head and neck above are plumbeous gray; top of head black; white crescent in front of eyes; under parts purplish gray, each feather spotted with black; fore part of back brownish with 2 narrow bands of purplish gray; back behind and tail greenish brown; under tail coverts black; outer webs of some of the scapulars and the wing coverts bright blue; greater coverts tipped with white, with grass-green speculum below them; bill black; in the female the top of the head is brown, chin and throat yellowish white, back brown with paler edgings, under parts whitish with obscure brown spots, and the same blue and white in the wings as in the male. It is found throughout eastern North America to the Rocky mountains, but not in Europe; it is very abundant about the mouths of the Mississippi in winter, and is less hardy than the green-winged species; the flocks pass and repass many times over a place before alighting, and the glistening of their wings in the sun is like that of polished steel; it is easily kept in captivity, thriving on coarse corn meal, and could be domesticated with a little care. This species is replaced west of the Rocky mountains and on the Pacific coast by the red-breasted teal (Q. cyanoptera, Baird), a larger bird, of a general purplish chestnut color, without white on the head or tail; the feathers of the flanks are uniform chestnut.

TEARS, the limpid, colorless, slightly saline secretion of the lachrymal glands, continually poured out in quantity sufficient to bathe the surface of the eyes, to secure the easy and free motion of the lids, and to wash off any irritat

ing particles from their sensitive membrane. The lachrymal belong to the aggregated glands, or those in which the vesicles or acini are arranged in lobules; there is one situated at the upper, external, and anterior part of each orbit, in a depression of the frontal bone, in relation with the external rectus muscle, resting behind on a fatty areolar tissue; each gland is of the size of a small almond, of reddish white color and flattened form, enveloped in a fibrocellular capsule, and receiving an artery, vein, and nerve of the same name; the secretion is poured out by 6 or 7 trunks opening within the upper lid. At the inner angle of the eyes, in both lids, are 2 very narrow, always open apertures, the lachrymal puncta, situated in the middle of a slightly prominent tubercle, about 1 lines from the inner junction of the lids; they are opposite each other, the lower turned up and the upper down, and both outward and backward. Through these openings the tears are conveyed by the short lachrymal ducts in each lid to the lachrymal sac, situated at the inner angle of each eye, in the bony groove between the lachrymal bone and the ascending process of the superior maxillary; it is a small membranous sac, opening below into the nasal duct, which conveys the tears into the nose beneath the inferior turbinated bone, explaining why after a copious secretion of tears it becomes necessary to blow the nose. At the inner angle of the lids, in front of the globe and behind the lachrymal points, is a small reddish tubercle, pyramidal with the summit turned forward and outward; this is the lachrymal caruncle, and consists of a mass of small mucous follicles, covered by the conjunctiva, which forms in front and to the outside a semilunar fold, called the nictitating membrane; this is rudimentary in man, but remarkably developed in birds. The act of crying, generally accompanying an increased secretion of tears, as far as the movements of respiration are concerned, is very nearly the same as that of laughing, though occasioned by a contrary emotion; the expiratory muscles are in more or less violent convulsive movement, sending out the breath in a series of jerks, accompanied by well known sounds; in children the act is sometimes continued almost to the complete emptying of the chest of air, to the great dismay of parents, but the besoin de respirer is always stronger than the convulsive muscular movements. Moderate excitement, whether of joy, tenderness, or grief, increases greatly the quantity of the tears, though the secretion is checked by violent emotions; in intense grief the tears do not flow, the restoration of the secretion being a sign of moderated sorrow, and itself affording relief by the resumption of nervous action previously held in abeyance by great mental depression. Considering their size, there are no other glands which ordinarily can so increase the amount of their secretion as the lachrymal; the quantity is sometimes very great, and very easily stimulated; the shedding of tears is also

decidedly contagious, and it is for most persons difficult to see any one weeping without feeling their own eyes fill with tears.-The lachrymal gland is rarely diseased, though it is subject to inflammation, and to morbid growths, for which it has been extirpated. Xerophthalmia is a disease in which the eyes are dry from deficiency of the tears or of the mucous secretion; the best remedy is bathing the organs by means of the eye cup with tepid water. In epiphora the tears are secreted so abundantly that they run over the cheeks, the lachrymal ducts not being able to convey them off fast enough; it is not uncommon in scrofulous persons with very irritable eyes, and is best treated by alteratives and tonics, with soothing and gently astringent applications; this symptom is sometimes caused by foreign bodies or inverted lashes. The lachrymal puncta may be closed, causing the tears to flow over the cheeks, for which the remedy is dilatation by fine probes. When the nasal duct is obstructed, the eye is watery and the corresponding nostril dry, the sac forming a small tumor at the side of the nose; the sac also may be inflamed, with pain, tenderness, swelling, and feverish symptoms; this may end in suppuration and an external opening, constituting lachrymal fistula, requiring the restoration of the obliterated duct by styles of different materials, as described in surgical works.

TEASEL (dipsacus fullonum), a European plant, greatly improved by cultivation, used for dressing cloths. It has a fleshy root which branches and tapers; an erect, furrowed, prickly stem, branching near the top, 5 or 6 feet high; sessile, entire leaves, spiny on the margins and surfaces, those of the stem opposite and joined at base, and generally filled with water, whence its generic name dipsacus (Gr. dı↓akos, thirsty). The disposition of the flowers reminds one of the composite order, being numerous and collected upon a cylindrical head; but from certain structural peculiarities the teasels and the scabiouses form a distinct natural order termed dipsacacea. The corolla is monopetalous, tubular, 5-lobed, of a whitish color, the stamens having pale purple anthers. Rigid, spiny scales, recurved at the apex, surround each floret; and when the flowers have faded, the dried and ripened receptacles are gathered and selected with great care, being assorted according as they are terminal, lateral, or secondary growth, the first being the best for use. The head forms a sort of brush which is found to be better adapted for raising the nap on woollen fabrics than any artificial substitute that has been contrived. The teasels are attached when in use to the periphery of a large, broad wheel, which is made to revolve so as to bring them in contact with the surface of the cloth. The profits from teasel culture are very uncertain, much depending upon the weather and on the condition of the soil.-The wild teasel (D. sylvestris, Miller), supposed to be the original of the cultivated kind, is a common plant by road

sides and near hedges, and is sometimes found in similar spots in the United States, being however adventitious.

TECUMSEH, a North American Indian, chief of a tribe of the Shawnees, born on the banks of the Scioto river, near Chillicothe, O., about 1770, killed in the battle of the Thames, C. W., Oct. 5, 1813. He was one of 3 brothers brought forth at the same birth. The others were Kumshaka, who probably died young, and Elskwatawa, better known as the prophet. An engagement with Kentucky troops which took place on Mad river, when he was perhaps not more than 20, is the first fight with white men at which Tecumseh is known to have been present, and it was reported by some of his tribe that he then ran at the first fire; yet in the war that ended with the treaty of Greenville in 1795, he became celebrated as one of the boldest and most active of the Indian warriors. About 1804 he formed, in conjunction with his brother the prophet, a project to unite all the western Indians in a defensive alliance against the whites. Tecumseh visited all the tribes on the W. bank of the Mississippi, and upon Lakes Superior, Huron, and Michigan, and the prophet pretended to be commissioned to the Indians from the Great Spirit and began to preach against the influence of the white men. Both had considerable success, and in 1811 the prophet had finally gathered around him at Tippecanoe on the Wabash a force of several hundred warriors. Governor Harrison's investigations in relation to this force brought on the battle of Tippecanoe, Nov. 7, 1811, in which the Indians were defeated. Tecumseh's plan was not yet mature, and this battle ruined it. His next endeavor was in the alliance with the English. He received the rank of brigadiergeneral, commanded all the Indians who cooperated with the English in the campaigns of 1812-'13, was present at every important action previous to that on the Thames, and took a conspicuous part in the skirmishes that preceded Hull's surrender of Detroit. In the battle on the Thames, near the Moravian towns, he commanded the Indian and English right wing, and was posted in the only part of it that was engaged with the U. S. troops. The Indians were driven back, but Tecumseh rushed forward where the American fire was thickest and fell. He was generally said to have been shot by Col. R. M. Johnson, afterward vice-president of the United States; but there was never any foundation for the statement, and it is now no longer credited.

TEETH, the organs in vertebrates for the seizure and mastication of food, placed at or near the entrance to the alimentary canal. In adult man there are 32, 16 in each jaw, implanted in sockets, and of an irregular conoid form; in the child there are only 20. For their development see DENTITION. Their number increases in the lower animals, being greatest in the cetaceans and marsupials among mammals, and also considerable in many rep

tiles and fishes. The portion of a tooth above the socket is called the crown, the concealed part the root or fang, between these being a more or less well marked constriction or neck. Vertebrate teeth, like bones, have for their earthy basis phosphate of lime, the enamel also containing fluate of lime; the teeth of invertebrates consist essentially of carbonate of lime. The body of a tooth is composed of a tissue called dentine, the outer crust of the cement or crusta petrosa, with generally a thin covering of enamel on the grinding surface. Dentine is disposed in the form of very minute cells and tubes of an animal gelatinous basis, containing the earthy matter, some of its varieties closely resembling bone; the cement corresponds in texture with the osseous tissue of the animal, forming nearly of the mass of the elephant's molars, and wearing away sooner than the dentine; the enamel is the hardest constituent of the tooth, and the hardest of the animal tissues, consisting of the earthy matter contained in the canals of an animal matrix.-There are 3 kinds of teeth distinguishable in mammals, viz., incisors, canines, and molars. The incisors are situated in the front and median portion of the jaws, and have a simple flattened root and a thin cutting edge, suitable for dividing and collecting food, as in the jaws of the beaver and squirrel and in the lower jaw of the ox. The canines, 4 in number, are next to the incisors, separated from them by an interval, except in man; the crown is conical, and the root long and simple; they are the so called eye and stomach teeth in man, and form a striking character and very formidable weapons in the carnivora; they are best adapted for securing and tearing a living prey. The molar teeth are the most posterior, and have flattened and tuberculous crowns suited for grinding down vegetable food; they are most developed in herbivorous animals; the roots in man are often much bifurcated, rendering extraction difficult. Teeth are so intimately related to the food and habits of animals, so easily examined from their situation, and of such indestructible materials, that they are of the first importance in the classification of animals, both living and fossil. The importance of the teeth in preparing food for the digestive process has been noticed under DIGESTION; in man they are also subservient to beauty and to speech; when fully formed they are subject to decay, but have no inherent power of reparation; they may increase by abnormal growth of the cement, their most highly organized constituent. For the diseases and the mode of treatment of the teeth, see DENTISTRY.-In fishes the teeth vary from none in the sturgeon and lophobranchs to countless numbers in the pike and the siluroids; they are usually conical, but sometimes flattened or pavement-like, villiform, serrated, and cutting; they may be situated on any of the bones of the oral cavity, on the tongue, and in the pharynx; in most cases they are firmly united to the jaws by continu

ous ossification, but in some are movable; they are composed of dentine and its modifications, enamel occurring in only a few cases, like the parrot fish (scarus); and they are frequently shed and renewed, the germs being developed from the free surface of the buccal membrane. Among reptiles, the whole order of chelonians (tortoises and turtles), and also the toad family among batrachians, are without teeth; in the others these organs are usually simple, and adapted for seizing and holding but not chewing their food; the number is never so small nor so large as in fishes, and is rarely characteristic of species; they are generally conical, sharp, and smooth, and may be placed on any of the bones entering into the structure of the mouth; the base never branches into diverging fangs, and in most is anchylosed in various ways to the bone which bears them, as noticed under the different families; dentine and cement are always present, and sometimes enamel, as in the saurian crown. Among mammals, some of the edentates, as ant-eaters and pangolins, have no teeth; in the others they are implanted in sockets, and the molars have 2 or more roots when they have a limited growth; they are confined to the superior, inferior, and intermaxillary bones, a single row in each. Mammals have been divided by Owen into monophyodonts, or those which generate a single set of teeth, and diphyodonts, or those which generate 2 sets of teeth; the former include the monotremes, edentates, and carnivorous cetaceans, and the latter all the other orders. The teeth of mammals and their dental formulas have been sufficiently described in their respective divisions.-For full details on this subject the reader is referred to the following writings of Prof. Richard Owen: "Odontography" (London, 1840-'45); article "Teeth" in vol. iv. of the "Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology" (1852); and "The Principal Forms of the Skeleton and Teeth," in vol. i. of Orr's "Circle of Sciences" (London; reprinted in Philadelphia, 1854).

TEETH, MINERAL. See DENTISTRY, vol. vi. p. 396.

TEFFT, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, D.D., LL.D., an American clergyman, born in Oneida co., N. Y., in 1813. He commenced a course of classics and mathematics at an early age, and at 15 entered upon the study of law, but subsequently, after receiving a collegiate education with a view to the ministry, applied himself for 4 years to legal, metaphysical, and historical studies. He then became pastor of a Methodist Episcopal church at Bangor, Me., and two years later president of a classical seminary at Providence, R. I., where he remained one year; and after residing for a year in Boston, he was called to the professorship of Greek and Hebrew in the Indiana Asbury university, where he remained 3 years. He has since been general editor of the books and magazine of the Methodist book concern at Cincinnati, and still later president of Gene

see college. He has published "The Shoulder Knot, or Sketches of the Threefold Life of Man" (New York, 1850); "Hungary and Kossuth, or an American Exposition of the late Hungarian Revolution" (Boston, 1852); and "Methodism Successful, and the Internal Causes of its Success" (New York, 1859).

TEFLIS. See TIFLIS.

TEGEA, an ancient and powerful city of Greece, situated in the S. E. part of Arcadia. Its territory was called Tegeatis. It is mentioned in the Iliad. Its early history was marked by a constant war between it and the Spartans, who for a long time unsuccessfully attempted to bring about its subjection. Charilaus, a Spartan king, invaded at one time the land of the Tegeans, but was defeated and made prisoner. Two centuries later Leon and Agesicles were unsuccessful in another invasion; but about 560 B. C. the city fell into the hands of the Spartans, and though retaining its independence was bound to furnish a military force when required. In the Persian war 500 Tegeans fought at Thermopylæ, and at Platæa 3,000. Subsequently they were again at war with Sparta, and were defeated; but during the entire Peloponnesian war they adhered constantly to the side of the Spartans, as they did also in the Corinthian war which followed. After the battle of Leuctra in 371, the Spartan party having been expelled, Tegea became a member of the Arcadian confederacy, and its citizens in 362 fought under Epaminondas at Mantinea. Subsequently it joined the Ætolian league, and in the wars between Sparta and the Achæan league was alternately in the hands of the contending parties. After the Roman conquest of Greece, it continued to be a place of considerable importance, but toward the close of the 4th century of the Christian era was taken and totally destroyed by Alaric.

TEGNER, ESAIAS, a Swedish poet, born at Kirkerud, Wermland, Nov. 13, 1782, died in Wexiö, Nov. 2, 1846. He was graduated at the university of Lund in 1803, and made professor of Greek literature there in 1812, having in the interval been an under professor. A patriotic poem entitled Svea (Sweden) was his first production, and obtained for the author the prize of the Swedish academy. In 1824 he was made bishop of Wexiö, and from that period devoted himself to his episcopal duties. The most admirable of Tegnér's poems is Frithiofs Saga ("The Legend of Frithiof"), which first appeared in 1825. It consists of 24 cantos, of different metres, each according to the style of the subject, and in imitation of the old Icelandic sagas. The most striking passages have been admirably set to music by Crusell, a Swede, and are constantly sung in family circles throughout the country. Among the works of Tegnér may be cited also the "First Communion;" "Axel," the story of a lifeguardsman of Charles XII.; the "Song of the Sun," a fine bacchanalian; the "Hero," a sketch of Napoleon; the "Sage," a didactic poem; and

Nattwardsbarnen ("The Children of the Lord's Supper"). His writings were collected and edited by his son-in-law Prof. Bottiger (6 vols., Stockholm, 1848). The best translations of Tegnér's poems, according to his own opinion, are those of Longfellow.

TEHAMA, a N. co. of California, drained by the Sacramento river; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 4,044. The surface is hilly, and the soil fertile and well adapted to grazing. The productions in 1858 were 133,450 bushels of wheat, 232,000 of barley, and 18,886 lbs. of wool. A large amount of timber is exported. There are two Indian reservations in the county, on which 8,000 Indians are settled. Capital, Red Bluffs.

of

TEHERAN, or TEHRAN, the capital of the kingdom of Persia, and of the province of IrakAjemi, 70 m. S. from the Caspian sea and 210 m. N. from Ispahan, in lat. 35° 41' N., long. 51° 23′ E.; pop. in winter about 80,000. The town stands in a sandy plain, with mountains to the N. and E., and a fertile, well cultivated country to the W. It is of a square form, surrounded by thick walls about 4 m. in extent, and is entered by 4 gates ornamented with the figures of different kinds of animals. Inside there are many vacant spaces and gardens and extensive ruins; but the streets are narrow, irregular, unpaved, and exceedingly filthy. The houses are badly built and mean in appearance. The royal palace consists of a great number of buildings and gardens, and covers nearly the area enclosed within the walls. It is fortified, and has a seraglio surrounded by lofty walls and guarded with great care. The bazaars are extensive, but are wretchedly kept and very dirty. There is a royal foundery, where guns of large caliber are made. One of the mosques is roofed with plates of gold. In summer the climate is unhealthy, and the monarch and about of the inhabitants leave the city and encamp on the plains of Sultanieh. On a hill in the neighborhood the king has a palace and beautiful gardens.-Under the Suffavean dynasty Teheran was not a place of importance. It was almost destroyed by the Afghans after the battle of Salman-abad; but it was afterward rebuilt, and has since received frequent additions to its fortifications. It was made the capital of Persia in the early part of the 18th century.

TEHUANTEPEC, a territory of Mexico, organized about 1850, and comprising the isthmus of the same name, bounded N. by the gulf of Campeachy, E. by the states of Tabasco and Chiapas, S. by the gulf of Tehuantepec, and W. by Vera Cruz and Oajaca; area, about 16,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1854, 82,395. Its width from gulf to gulf is 130 m. It is drained by the Coatzacoalcos river, which flows northward, discharging into the gulf of Campeachy, and extending about of the width of the territory; and by the Tehuantepec river, flowing into the gulf of the same name. There are several lakes and lagoons in the territory.

Capital, Minatitlan.-At one time it was proposed to construct a ship canal across the isthmus, improving the navigation of the Coatzacoalcos for a part of the distance, and using some small lakes as reservoirs at the height of land for the canal; but a subsequent project was the connection of the gulf and ocean by a railway which should form a part of the route from New Orleans to San Francisco, the isthmus being S. S. W. of New Orleans, and the route shorter by several hundred miles than any other proposed ocean route. Measures were taken to secure the grant of the route from the Mexican government, and it was provisionally opened by the despatch of vessels to the ports on either side, and the transportation of passengers by stage across the isthmus. The want of any good harbor on either side of the isthmus, and the immense expense which would be incurred in the erection of breakwaters adapted to produce even a partial shelter, as well as the shallowness of the harbors, have caused the project to be relinquished.-TEHUANTEPEC, a town of the above territory, is situated on Tehuantepec river, about 10 m. above its mouth, and 150 m. E. S. E. from Oajaca; pop. 14,000. It has salt works and cotton factories, and a considerable pearl fishery in which many of the inhabitants are engaged. Indigo is raised in the vicinity, and a purple dye is procured from a shell fish abundant there. The harbor is shallow and exposed to the hurricanes from the N. W.

TEIGNMOUTH, JOHN SHORE, baron, an English statesman, born in Devonshire, Oct. 8, 1751, died Feb. 14, 1834. He entered the civil service of the East India company as a cadet in 1769, and by successive promotions reached in 1786 the position of member of the supreme council under the governor-general, Lord Cornwallis, whom in 1793 he succeeded in office, and in 1794 he was made a baronet. The new settlement of landed property in the presidency of Bengal, and the new judicial system introduced under Lord Cornwallis, were mainly attributable to the efforts of Sir John Shore. He retired from office in the latter part of 1797, and was created Baron Teignmouth in the peerage of Ireland. Subsequently he was for many years a member of the board of control, and from 1804 until his death president of the British and foreign Bible society. He published in 1804 a memoir of Sir William Jones, whom he succeeded as president of the Asiatic society, and in 1807 he edited his works in 13 vols. 8vo. His "Life and Correspondence" was published by his son (2 vols., London, 1837).

TELEDU, or TELAGON, the name of the mydaus meliceps (F. Cuv.), a carnivorous animal of the family mustelina, emitting a fetid odor like that of the skunk, inhabiting Java, and confined exclusively to mountains 7,000 feet at least above the level of the sea. It is about the size of a polecat, being 15 inches long with a tail of half an inch, but the body is much thicker, the neck and limbs short and stout, and the

feet plantigrade; the teeth are as in the skunk, the snout prolonged like that of a pig, the head badger-like, ears very small and concealed by the long hair, and the eyes very high in the head; the claws of the fore feet are long, compressed, nearly straight, and adapted for digging; the fetid secretion is poured out from 2 glands near the end of the rectum, opening about half an inch within the canal. It is a nocturnal animal, making a shallow burrow, and feeding on insects, larvæ, and worms. The color is blackish brown, with a narrow whitish stripe extending from the occiput to the tail. It is slow in its movements, trusting for safety to its fetid odor; the natives are fond of its flesh, which is almost always fat and tender; it sometimes does considerable mischief by destroying the roots of young plants in cultivated districts. TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tλe, afar, and ypapw, to write), an apparatus by which intelligence is communicated to a distance. It properly includes the various methods of signalling, of which some account has been given in the article SIGNALS. The most obvious form of these, and one which has been adopted by different nations from remote antiquity, is that of fires made upon commanding points, which were visible at great distances, by their smoke by day and their light by night. By preconcerted arrangements, these are made to designate such intelligence as it may be desirable to communicate, such as the warning of the approach of an enemy, and to call the people together for their protection. The Roman generals, as described by Julius Africanus, perfected this method of communicating intelligence, so as to spell words by means of fires of different substances. The North American aborigines made use of regular stations over the western country for these signals; and the Indians of the north-west territory in this way communicated intelligence of the approach of Fremont, as he passed through their regions. Polybius describes two methods of telegraphing by means of torches; and Bishop Wilkins, after giving an account of this in his book entitled "Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger," describes a method of conversing at a distance with 3 lights or torches at night, which may be so used as to indicate the 24 necessary letters of the alphabet, these being divided into 3 classes of 8 letters each, which are severally designated by one, two, or three torches, and the number of the letter by the number of times the torches are elevated or

displayed. Another method was also proposed by Bishop Wilkins, in which intelligible signals were conveyed by means of two lights attached to long poles; and for long distances he suggested the use of the then newly invented telescope, or, as he called it, "Gallileus his perspective." A variety of systems of telegraphic signals were brought into notice by different inventors in the 17th and 18th centuries, one of the earliest of which was that of Dr. Robert Hooke described in the "Philosophical Trans