his troops. The state legislature, which had been in opposition to him, but which was guilty of great frauds and outrages, was broken up at the approach of his troops, and the state was with out a government. The Texans must either maintain a government of their own, or submit to the dictator, who had already deceived them. They chose the former alternative, and established at first committees of safety, the first being appointed at a meeting at Mina (now Bastrop), May 17, 1835. Others followed, and on the return of Austin in September it became evident that war was inevitable. The first battle, or rather skirmish, was fought near Gonzales, Oct. 2. Other battles soon occurred; Goliad was captured by the Texans on Oct. 9, and the battle of Conception was fought on the 28th. Col. Austin was made commander-inchief. On Nov. 12 the "Consultation," a body composed of delegates from the committees of safety, met at San Felipe de Austin, and proceeded to the organization of a provisional government. Henry Smith was elected governor and J. W. Robinson lieutenant-governor, and a general council was organized. At the same time, Gen. Austin having resigned, Gen. Sam Houston was elected commander-in-chief, and the former appointed a commissioner to the United States. San Antonio de Bexar was taken on Dec. 10, 1835, after being cannonaded for 6 days, and on the 14th Gen. Cos, the Mexican commander, started for Mexico with upward of 1,000 of the troops who had surrendered. By this battle the entire armed Mexican force was driven out of Texas. On the 22d a "Declaration of Independence" was issued at Goliad by Capt. Philip Dimitt and some other persons there. Santa Anna, on receiving intelligence of the surrender of Gen. Cos, at once determined upon active measures for the reduction of Texas, and set out with an army of 7,500 men well provided with artillery, ammunition, and stores. Gen. Houston had caused San Antonio de Bexar to be dismantled, and on Feb. 23, 1836, Santa Anna with a large detachment of his army invested the Alamo, a strong fort near San Antonio, which was garrisoned at this time by 140 men under command of W. B. Travis, and 32 more subsequently forced their way through the Mexicans into it. Santa Anna with a force of 4,000 men bombarded it for 11 days, and finally carried it by storm. On March 6 the whole garrison were put to the sword, and but 3 persons, a woman, a child, and a servant, were spared. The Mexican loss was 1,600. On the 17th of the same month the convention adopted a constitution and elected a president (David G. Burnett) and other officers of the new republic. Meanwhile Gen. Houston found it necessary on the approach of Santa Anna to evacuate Gonzales. The tragedy of the Alamo, the murder of Col. Fannin's command in cold blood at Goliad, March 27, 1836, by Santa Anna's order, in violation of the terms of surrender (see FANNIN), and the successive defeats of the

Texan troops, produced a temporary panic. This was increased by the continued retreat of Gen. Houston, who fell back first to the Colorado, then to the Brazos, and finally to the San Jacinto, his design being to scatter and divide the Mexican force, in which he was eminently successful. The alarm soon passed away, and having collected a force of about 800 troops, he gave battle on April 21 to the Mexican forces which had pursued them, of about twice the number, and defeated them completely, killing 630, wounding 208, and taking 730 prisoners; among the latter (though not captured till the next day) was the Mexican president, who had commanded in person. Santa Anna, at Gen. Houston's request, sent an order to Gen. Filisola, who was on the Brazos, directing him to fall back to Bexar, and to direct Gen. Urrea to retire to Guadalupe Victoria, and not to molest the Texans, as he had agreed upon an armistice. The Mexicans were at once demoralized by the defeat and half starved, for the Texans had taken the vessels sent with supplies. They retreated rapidly westward in disorder; and when the Texan commissioners arrived at the Mexican camp with the treaties into which Santa Anna had entered with the Texan provisional government, agreeing to withdraw all troops from Texas, and to open the way for negotiation for the recognition of her independence, asking its ratification on the part of Gen. Filisola and its transmission through him to the Mexican government, the Mexican army was by no means formidable. Santa Anna was held a prisoner, but the war was practically ended; and though the Mexican government made several attempts to fit out other armies for its recapture, and refused to acknowledge its independence, their armies did not again invade the country. The population of the state had increased to about 52,000, and the intelligence of the massacres at the Alamo and Goliad had enlisted so much sympathy for the Texan cause in the United States that considerable bodies of troops had come in to aid them. Gen. Houston, who had been wounded in the battle of San Jacinto, and had resigned his command of the army, was, in Sept. 1836, elected to the presidency of the republic, and on Oct. 22 was inaugurated. The first congress of the republic assembled at the same time, the constitution having been adopted in the election of September. In March, 1837, the United States acknowledged the independence of Texas. Mexico yet maintained a hostile attitude, but her efforts were confined to occasional captures of Texan vessels, and to the stimulation of the Indians to make predatory incursions upon them; and both these methods of annoyance led to reprisals in kind. In 1838 Mirabeau B. Lamar succeeded Gen. Houston as president of the republic. During his administration an agent of the Mexican government to the Indian tribes at the north, with some of his guard, was killed, and from the commissions found in his possession it was discovered that

that government was endeavoring to incite the Indians to commence a harassing and destructive warfare all along the frontier. The timely discovery of this design prevented its execution. There were, however, repeated incur sions made by the Comanches and other tribes; and in Aug. 1840, the Texans under the command of Ben McCulloch (subsequently distinguished as the commander of the Texan rangers in the Mexican war, and as a general of the confederate forces in the civil war of 1861-2, and killed at the battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas, March 8, 1862) pursued them after one of their forays, penetrated into their country, and in several successive conflicts inflicted upon them summary and severe punishment. In 1840 the independence of the republic was acknowledged by England, France, and Belgium. But while thus recognized by leading powers as independent, her financial condition was every month becoming more deplorable. The debt, in Oct. 1840, was $4,822,318, and the treasury notes had become depreciated to 12 or 15 cents on the dollar. Various plans of relief were proposed, and at one time Gen. Hamilton, the agent of the republic in France, had as he supposed negotiated a loan with the banking house of Laffitte and co. there; but owing to some differences between the French consul at Galveston and the Texans, he did not succeed in completing it. Finding their credit at the lowest possible ebb, Gen. Houston, who had again become president in Dec. 1841, recommended the abandonment of all attempts to borrow, the suspension of their debt, the reduction of all expenses, and the payment of duties in specie or par funds. A part of these recommendations were adopt ed, but with little relief. Meanwhile, in 1841 and 1842, the Mexican government sent two marauding expeditions into Texas, one of which captured and plundered San Antonio, and then retreated rapidly, making no attempt at subjugating the country. The Texans attempted reprisals by two ill-judged expeditions, neither of them under the direction of the government, the first in 1841 to Santa Fé, the second in 1842 to Mier in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. Both were unsuccessful; many of the Texans were taken prisoners by the Mexicans, and subsequently executed. In the Mier expedition 18 were shot in cold blood by the order of Santa Anna. In the spring of 1843 a third expedition, intended to intercept the Mexican traders to Santa Fé, was fitted out by private parties, but with the approbation of the government, which also proved a failure. The same year, on the remonstrance of the British chargé d'affaires to Mexico, Santa Anna, who was still in power, informed Gen. Houston that he would agree to an armistice; and commissioners were appointed on both sides. While the negotiations were pending, President Tyler, through his secretary of state, Mr. Upshur, made propositions to the president of Texas for her annexation to the United States, which were after a time favor

ably received, and a treaty was made looking to annexation. This treaty was completed and signed by the Texan commissioners and Mr. Calhoun, April 12, 1844, but was rejected by the United States senate on June 8. The agitation of this subject greatly irritated Mexico, and caused her to terminate the armistice and threaten the renewal of hostilities; it also displeased Great Britain and France, who desired to see Texas under an English or joint protectorate, without slavery, and free from the influence of the United States. The rejection of the annexation treaty therefore delighted those parties, while for the time it placed Texas in a humiliated position. In Dec. 1844, Dr. Anson Jones was inaugurated as president of the republic. The state in its internal affairs was becoming more prosperous. Its revenues were increasing, and its population growing with great rapidity, and the threats of war from Mexico were rendered powerless by her weakness and dissensions. The only disturbance within the boundaries of the state was the conflicts between the "regulators" and "moderators," two bodies of ruffians, murderers, counterfeiters, horse thieves, and the like, numbering nearly 200 each, who were engaged in Shelby and the adjacent counties in plundering, robbing, and killing peaceful citizens, and the members of the gang opposed to them. These were finally put down by armed force. In the session of the U. S. congress following the election of Mr. Polk to the presidency, joint resolutions for the annexation of Texas were introduced and passed the house of representatives, by a vote of 120 to 98, Feb. 25, 1845, and the senate by a vote of 27 to 25 on March 1, and were approved by President Tyler the same day. President Jones called a convention of 61 delegates to meet on July 4 to consider the propositions for annexation, and that convention ratified the act and prepared a constitution for the republic as a state of the federal Union, which was submitted to the people and approved by them. The joint resolution by which the annexation was effected was in the following words:

"That congress doth consent that the territory properly included within, and rightfully belonging to the republic of Texas, may be erected into a new state, to be called the state of Texas, with a republican form of government, to be adopted by the people of said republic, by deputies in convention assembled, with the consent of the existing government, in order that the same may be admitted as one of the states of this Union. And, that the foregoing consent of congress is given upon the following conditions, and with the following guarantees:

"First. Said state to be formed, subject to the adjustment by this government of all questions of boundary that may arise with other governments; and the constitution thereof, with the proper evidence of its adoption by the people of said republic of Texas, shall be transmitted to the president of the United States, to be laid before congress for its final action, on or before the 1st day of January, 1846. "Second. Said state, when admitted into the Union, after ceding to the United States all public edifices, fortifications, barracks, ports and harbors, navy and navy yards, and means pertaining to the public defence belonging to said docks, magazines, arms, armaments, and all other property republic of Texas, shall retain all the public funds, debts, taxes, and dues of every kind which may belong to, or be due and owing said republic; and shall also retain all the vacant and unappropriated lands lying within its limits, to

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be applied to the payment of the debts and liabilities of said republic of Texas; and the residue of said lands, after discharging said debts and liabilities, to be disposed of as said state may direct; but in no event are said debts and liabilities to become a charge upon the government of the United "Third. New states, of convenient size, not exceeding four in number, in addition to said state of Texas, and hav ing sufficient population, may hereafter by the consent of said state be formed out of the territory thereof, which shall be entitled to admission under the provisions of the federal constitution. And such states as may be formed out of that

portion of said territory lying south of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude, commonly known as the Missouri compromise line, shall be admitted into the Union with or without slavery, as the people of each state asking admission may desire; and in such state or states as shall be formed out of said territory north of said Missouri compromise line, slavery or involuntary servitude (except for crime) shall be prohibited."

The state of Texas was admitted into the Union on Dec. 27, 1845. After its admission, which led to a war with Mexico, it found itself unable to pay its debts from the proceeds of its public lands, and on Aug. 2, 1850, congress, as one of the compromise measures of that year, voted to pay to the state $10,000,000 in 5 per cent. bonds, payable 14 years after date, in consideration of the reduction of her boundaries (by giving up a portion of her northern territory to New Mexico), cession of territory, and relinquishment of claims against the United States. With the proceeds of these bonds she paid off her debts, averaging 79 cents on the dollar on the claims against her. Soon after the presidential election in 1860 there were indications in some of the E. counties of a desire for secession from the United States; but Gov. Houston refused to call a convention to consider the subject, and declared that secession would prove the ruin of the state. A call for a convention, signed by 61 persons, was published, and to avoid a collision Gov. Houston called an extra session of the legislature for Jan. 22, 1861. The legislature, in opposition to his views, sanctioned a convention, but required that if a secession ordinance was passed it should be submitted to the people. The convention assembled on Jan. 28. Nearly one half the counties of the state, some of them among the most populous, held no election for it, and were not represented; and in many of those which elected, not over or of the voters of the county took part at the polls. The ordinance of secession was passed by this convention on Feb. 5, by ayes 166, noes 7. It was to be submitted to the people on Feb. 23, except in El Paso co., where it was to be submitted on the 18th. The convention then adjourned to Feb. 20. Meantime the legislature authorized the issue of state bonds to the amount of $500,000, and of treasury warrants receivable for taxes. The governor, on the passage of the secession ordinance, published an address protesting in the name of the people against all the acts and proceedings of the convention. The convention on reassembling, by a vote of 127 to 4, deposed the governor and secretary of state, and directed the lieutenant-governor to take the place of the governor. This done, they adjourned on Feb. 25. The secession or

dinance was said to have been passed by a large majority. Early in Feb. 1861, Gen. David E. Twiggs indicated to the convention his willingness to surrender to the state, or rather to the secession party in the state, the arms, ammunition, stores, horses, mules, wagons, and money in his possession belonging to the United States; and on the 18th an agreement was entered into between him and commissioners appointed by the state for such surrender. By this act, 13 forts, 15,000 stand of arms, 80 pieces of ordnance, $55,000 in specie, about 1,200 horses, and mules, wagons, tents, provisions, ammunition, and munitions of war to the estimated value of nearly $2,000,000, were given up. By the agreement, the U. S. soldiers and subordinate officers, 2,500 in number, were to be allowed their arms and furnished with transportation that they might leave the state without hindrance or pledge; but this agreement was broken, and they were all taken prisoners, stripped of their arms, and only released on parole not to serve against the confederate states. In June the acting governor (Clarke) issued a proclamation forbidding any citizen of Texas to hold intercourse with any of the northern states or territories, without special permission, or to pay any debt then owing to any citizen of those states during the war. All citizens of northern states were warned to depart from the state within 24 hours. On Aug. 2 and 5 the confederate vessels in the harbor of Galveston fired at the blockading fleet, which in return fired at them and threw 3 or 4 shells into the city. This was represented as a bombardment of the city, and the French and English consuls formally protested against it. During the early part of the autumn a force of about 700 Texan soldiers penetrated into the southern portion of New Mexico, and captured a fort garrisoned by U. S. troops; they were subsequently reënforced by other parties from Texas, and attempted to conquer the whole territory; but in March, 1862, they were driven back with heavy loss and great suffering. Texas contributed a large number of troops to the confederate army; and one of its most successful generals, Ben McCulloch, long identified with the history of the state as a partisan leader, was killed at the battle of Pea Ridge, in Benton co., Ark.

TEXAS, a S. co. of Missouri, drained by Current river and affluents of the Gasconade; area, 1,250 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 6,069, of whom 56 were slaves. The surface is hilly, with large forests of yellow pine, and the soil fertile along the streams. The productions in 1850 were 112,042 bushels of Indian corn, 2,848 of wheat, and 5,957 of oats. There were 15 saw mills, 3 churches, and 20 pupils attending a public school. Capital, Houston.

TEXEL, a Dutch island of the North sea, in the province of North Holland, separated from the mainland by the channel called Mars-Diep, about 2 m. broad; lat. of W. point 53° 3′ N., long. 4° 42′ E.; extreme length 14 m., breadth

6 m.; pop. 5,600. It contains several villages, the most important of which is Barg. The surface is low and a great deal of it marshy, but it is protected from inundations by the line of dunes or sand hills on the W. side, and strong dikes in other parts. The soil is remarkably fertile, and is chiefly occupied by pastures. Several naval engagements have taken place near this island.

TEZCOCO, or TEZCUCO, a town of Mexico, in the state and about 16 m. E. N. E. from the city of Mexico, situated on the E. shore of the lake of the same name; pop. about 5,000. Woollen and cotton goods are manufactured, and a considerable trade is carried on. In ancient times Tezcoco was the second city in the kingdom. One of the palaces of Montezuma is said to have stood in the N. W. quarter, and in the S. part there are massive remains of 3 pyramids, each measuring 400 feet along the base of their fronts, which are thought to have been teocallis, devoted to human sacrifices.

THACHER, JAMES, M.D., an American physician and author, born in Barnstable, Mass., Feb. 14, 1754, died in Plymouth, May 26, 1844. He commenced the study of medicine at the age of 16, and on the breaking out of the revolution was appointed surgeon's mate to Dr. John Warren in the general hospital at Cambridge; in 1778 he was made chief surgeon to the 1st Virginia state regiment, and in 1779 was transferred to the same post in a New England regiment. Throughout the war he kept a diary, and was thus enabled in 1834 to disprove the charges brought against our army and Gen. Washington by Mr. Buchanan, British consul at New York, of André's regimentals having been purloined. In March, 1783, he established himself in his profession at Plymouth, Mass., where he also gave some attention to the manufacture of salt and iron. In 1810 he first became known as an author by the publication of the "American New Dispensatory," which was long a standard work on pharmacy, medical chemistry, and materia medica. This was followed by "Observations on Hydrophobia" (8vo., 1812); "The Modern Practice of Physic (1817; 2d ed., 1826); "The American Orchardist" (1822; 2d ed., 1825); “ A Military Journal during the Revolutionary War" (1823; 2d ed., 1827); "American Medical Biography" (2 vols. 8vo., 1828); "A Practical Treatise on the Management of Bees" (1829); "An Essay on Demonology, Ghosts, and Apparitions" (1831); and other works.

THACHER, PETER, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Milton, Mass., March 21, 1752, died in Savannah, Ga., Dec. 16, 1802. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1769, and settled at Malden, Mass., in 1770. He soon attained a high reputation as a preacher, and received the name of the "silver-tongued Thacher." From Jan. 1785, till his death, he was the pastor of the Brattle street church in Boston. He was active and earnest as a patriot during the revolution, and his "Oration

against Standing Armies," delivered at Watertown in 1776, has retained its reputation to the present time. In 1780 he was a member of the convention to form a constitution for the state, and for 15 years he was chaplain of one or both branches of the legislature. The university of Edinburgh conferred on him the degree of D.D. in 1791. He published 22 distinct works, among which were Observations on the State of the Clergy in New England" (1783), and "Memoirs of Dr. Boylston" (1789).

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SAMUEL COOPER, an American clergyman, son of the preceding, born in Boston, Dec. 14, 1785, died in Moulins, France, Jan. 2, 1818. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1804, and in 1811, when the Rev. Dr. Kirkland was elected president of Harvard university, Mr. Thacher was chosen his successor as pastor of the New South church in Boston. In 1817 he again visited Europe for the benefit of his health, but died of consumption soon after reaching Moulins. He was one of the association for conducting the "Monthly Anthology," and published a memoir of his friend, the Rev. Joseph Stevens Buckminster. After Mr. Thacher's death a volume of his sermons, with a memoir by the Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood, his successor in the ministry, was published.

THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE, an English novelist, born in Calcutta in 1811. Descended from an old family of Yorkshire that has given several rectors and scholars to the church of England, his grandfather was rector of Hadley in Middlesex, and his father was engaged in the civil service of the East India company. He was sent to England in his 7th year, had a view of Napoleon at St. Helena on his way, and was placed at the Charterhouse school in London. From the Charterhouse he went to the university of Cambridge, but did not take his degree; inherited a fortune of £20,000 on coming of age; chose art for his profession; and travelled and studied for several years in France, Italy, and Germany. In 1830-31 he lived at Weimar, saw Goethe, purchased Schiller's sword, and delighted in making caricatures for children, some of which he found still preserved on revisiting the place in 1853. Reminiscences of his early art studies are interwoven into his fictions, many of which are illustrated by his own pencil; but he abandoned the project of becoming a professional artist soon after his return to England. His fortune was greatly reduced by losses and unsuccessful speculations, and before his 30th year he had set himself resolutely to literature as his vocation. His progress to general recognition was slow, though from the first he gave signs of his peculiar powers. He is understood to have written for the "Times" while it was edited by Barnes, and was certainly connected with other London journals. He contributed to "Fraser's Magazine," under the pseudonymes of Michael Angelo Titmarsh and George Fitz-Boodle, Esq., a variety of tales, criticisms, descriptive sketches, and

verses, which proved his knowledge of the world, delicate irony, and mastery of a playful yet vigorous style. In this periodical appeared "The Great Hoggarty Diamond" in 1841, a thoroughly genial satire, with a tone at once of ridicule and of pathos. His earliest separate publications, also under the pseudonyme of "Titmarsh, literary cockney and sketcher," were "The Paris Sketch Book" (2 vols., 1840); "The Second Funeral of Napoleon" and "The Chronicle of the Drum" (1841), the latter being one of his finest metrical pieces; and "The Irish Sketch Book" (2 vols., 1843). None of these attained popularity, though the last has some of the happiest touches both of his pen and pencil. Meantime "Barry Lyndon," one of the best of his short tales, narrating the adventures of an Irish gambler and fortunehunter, was contributed by Fitz-Boodle to "Fraser." The establishment of "Punch" in 1841 opened to him a new field, and his papers in this periodical speedily acquired peculiar distinction. His first series, under the signature of "The Fat Contributor," were followed by "Jeames's Diary," in which he looks at society from the footman's point of view, and "The Snob Papers," which gave to him an independent reputation as a social satirist, while they added to the success and dignity of "Punch." Many of his contributions were in verse, and showed his dexterous command of rhyme and of ludicrous orthography. A journey which he made to the East for his health suggested his "Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo, by way of Lisbon, Athens, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, by M. A. Titmarsh" (1846); and he issued in the following year a small Christmas book entitled "Mrs. Perkins's Ball." Meantime "Vanity Fair," illustrated by himself, was published in numbers (1846-'8). When it began, his name was still generally unknown, but its popularity increased with every number, and at its close he was universally accounted with Dickens and Bulwer among the first British novelists. It is more strongly marked by special and peculiar genius than any other of his works, and is preeminent also in the delineation of character. Becky Sharp and Amelia Sedley, one the impersonation of intellect without affection, and the other of affection without intellect, are original characters, thoroughly and sagaciously drawn; the wickedness of the one is made amusing, and the weakness of the other pathetic; and cruel sarcasm, sparkling persiflage, and soft compassion succeed each other as he traces the desperate enterprise of Becky and half sneers at the unfaltering tenderness of Amelia. Upon the completion of "Vanity Fair" he published another Christmas book, "Our Street" (1848), to which a companion volume, "Dr. Birch and his Young Friend," was added in the following year. He had already begun another monthly serial, "The History of Pendennis, his Fortunes and Misfortunes, his Friends and his Greatest Enemy, with Illustrations by the Author." He

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aimed in this, his second great work, to describe the gentlemen of the present age, better nor worse than most educated men.' Arthur Pendennis is a young fellow of warm feelings and a lively intellect, self-conceited and selfish, with no attractive points of character but a sense of honor and a capacity for love. He is carried away by absurd passions, falls a victim to vanity and weakness, takes to literature, becomes a man of the world and of fashion, and lives from hand to mouth without ambition, convictions, or any object beyond the chance requisitions and excitements of the day. The author invites us, "knowing how mean the best of us is," to give a hand of charity to him "with all his faults and shortcomings, who does not claim to be a hero, but only a man and a brother." A higher moral tone appears in the characters of Warrington and Laura. "Pendennis" was concluded in 1850, and his Christmas book of that year was a reprint from "Fraser" of a mock continuation of Scott's "Ivanhoe," entitled "Rebecca and Rowena." He published an original Christmas tale for the next year, "The Kickleburys on the Rhine," a clever and kindly satire on a proud and vulgar family travelling on the continent, but which a critic in the "Times" newspaper severely reviewed, charging the author with preferring to look only on the ugly side of human nature, and with overlooking the virtue and amiability that exist in the world. Mr. Thackeray repelled and ridiculed the accusation in an Essay on Thunder and Small Beer," prefixed to the second edition of the volume. In the summer of 1851 he lectured in London before brilliant audiences on "The English Humorists of the 18th Century," sketching the lives and works of his predecessors in English fiction from Swift to Goldsmith. The lectures were repeated and admired in Scotland and America, were published in 1853, and have a peculiar charm from the sympathetic and social portraiture of his "fellows" of the past, mingling fine thoughts and amusing anecdotes. Ten thousand copies of a cheap edition were sold in a week. His attention had been called to the wits of Queen Anne's reign by studies preparatory to the "History of Henry Esmond, Esq., written by Himself" (1852), the scene of which is laid in that era. This is the most artistically complete and the noblest in tone of all his works, while it also admirably copies the manners, sentiment, and diction of the Queen Anne period. The main characters, Esmond and Beatrix, are among his best creations-the former a strong, high-minded, disinterested, and impulsive cavalier and Jacobite, and the latter perhaps the finest picture of splendid, lustrous physical beauty ever given to the world. It is a magnificent and sombre romance, comparing with his other works as "The Bride of Lammermoor" to the others of Scott. His third serial novel was "The Newcomes: Memoirs of a Most Respectable Family, edited by Arthur Pendennis, Esq.," the issue

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