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THESSALONICA.

See SALONICA. THESSALY, the largest political division of ancient Greece, comprising in its fullest extent that tract of country lying between Thermopyla and the Cambunian mountains in one direction, and between the range of Pindus and the Ægæan sea in the other. Thessaly proper, however, was the plain included between the Cambunian mountains on the N., Ossa 'and Pelion on the E., Mt. Othrys on the S., and the Pindus range on the W. This plain, whose natural enclosure of mountains is broken only at the N. E. by the vale of Tempe, was the most fertile region and the largest space of land continuously productive in Greece, and was supposed by its inhabitants to have once been a lake, of which the lakes Nessonis (now Karatjaïr) and Bobeis (Karla) were the remains. It was drained by the river Peneus and its tributaries, and was divided into two plains, which in antiquity were called Upper Thessaly and Lower Thessaly; the former embracing Thessaliotis and Histiæotis, lying between Eginium in the N. and Thaumaci in the S., and having Pharsalus for its chief city; the latter, Pelasgiotis, stretching from Mts. Titarus and Ossa on the N. to Mt. Othrys and the gulf of Pagasa on the S., and having Larissa as its most important town. Thessaly proper was early divided into the four districts of Thessaliotis, Histiæotis, Pelasgiotis, and Phthiotis; and this division, the origin of which is sometimes ascribed to Aleuas, the founder of the Aleuada, was continued down to a very late time. In addition to Thessaly proper, the name was extended over Malis, a narrow valley lying between Mts. Othrys and Eta, and through which the river Spercheus enters into the Maliac gulf; and to Magnesia, a region lying along the coast and stretching between the vale of Tempe and the gulf of Pagasa.-The Thessalians were said to have been originally emigrants from Thesprotia in Epirus, who conquered the Pelasgian inhabitants of the plain of the Peneus, which is said by Herodotus to have then been called Eolis. During the historic period there were 3 classes inhabiting the country. The first was a body of rich oligarchical proprietors, who owned most of the soil. Of these the most powerful families were the Aleuada of Larissa, the Scopada of Crannon, and the Creondæ of Pharsalus; the second were the subject Achæans, Magnetes, and Perrhæbi, who however retained their tribe names and separate votes in the Amphictyonic council; the third were the Penesta or serf cultivators of the soil, who could not however be sold out of the country, and who kept up among themselves the relations of family and community. The fertility of the plain, upon which grain and cattle were raised in abundance, supported a large population, and especially a proud, disorderly, and faithless, but at the same time hospitable nobility. As here the finest horses in Greece were bred, Thessaly was distinguished for the excellence of its cavalry; but its in

fantry is little mentioned. The four divisions of the country formed a political union, existing rather in theory than in fact; and to enforce obedience to the common authority a chief or tagus was sometimes elected; but there were almost constantly feuds between the larger cities, each of which had dependent upon it a number of smaller towns. The language was a variety of the Eolic dialect.-The constant dissensions prevailing in Thessaly prevented it from occupying its rightful position in Greece. The inhabitants were early engaged in a constant war with the Phocians; they joined by constraint the army of Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, but took no part in the Peloponnesian war, though favoring on the whole the Athenians. In the latter half of the 4th century B. C. Jason, a man of great ability, gained the supreme power at Pheræ, and meditated not only the conquest of Greece, but the overthrow of the Persian empire. He succeeded in reducing all Thessaly to his authority, but before he had time to mature his designs, he was assassinated. The country subsequently fell into the hands of Philip of Macedon, and formed a part of the Macedonian monarchy until the defeat of Philip V. at Cynoscephalæ in 197 B. C., after which time it came under the Roman dominion, when the government was placed in the hands of the more wealthy persons, who used to meet in Larissa.-Thessaly now forms a part of the Turkish province of Saloniki (Salonica), and, though laid down on the maps as a separate district, is not recognized as such by the government. Its population is estimated at about 300,000, five sixths of whom are Greeks.

THETIS, in Greek mythology, a Nereid, the wife of Peleus, and the mother of Achilles. She dwelt in the depths of the sea with her father Nereus, and was sought in marriage by both Jupiter and Neptune; but the gods immediately relinquished their suit when it was declared by Themis that the son of Thetis should be more illustrious than his father.

THÉVENOT, JEAN DE, a French traveller, born in Paris, June 6, 1633, died in Persia, Nov. 28, 1667. The wealth inherited from his father enabling him to gratify his taste for travel, he visited England, Holland, Germany, and Italy, and in 1655 departed for the East, by way of Sicily, Malta, and Constantinople, visiting and exploring Asia Minor, Egypt, and Tunis, and returning home, after 7 years' absence, in 1662. After preparing his Voyage du Levant (4to., Paris, 1664), he sailed again for the East, sojourned 5 months in Ispahan, examined the most famous remains of Persia, went to Surat in 1666, and for nearly one year travelled over the Indian peninsula. His health being impaired, he started on his return home by way of Persia, but died at Miana, a small place 90 miles S. of Tabriz. Until a few days before his death he kept a diary, from which his friends were enabled to publish his account of Persia, as a sequel to his Voyage du

Levant, and his still more important Voyage contenant la relation de l'Indoustan, des noureaux Mogols et des autres peuples et pays des Indes (4to., 1684). His works were afterward collected under the title of Voyages de M. Thécenot tant en Europe qu'en Asie et en Afrique (5 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1689), and have been translated into Dutch, English, and German. He is said to have introduced coffee into Paris.

THIBAUT IV. or VI. as count of Champagne, I. as king of Navarre, a French trouvère or poet, born in 1201, died July 8, 1253. A posthumous son of Count Thibaut III. or V., he was educated at the court of Philip Augustus under the supervision of his mother, Blanche, daughter of Sancho the Wise, king of Navarre, and became an early adept of the "gay science." Several of his poems were addressed, under an assumed name, to Blanche of Castile, the queen of Louis VIII., whom he loved to distraction, although she was 14 years his senior. When her husband died prematurely at Montpensier in 1226, while returning from an expedition against the Albigenses, Thibaut, who accompanied him, was suspected, but on no plausible grounds, of being his poisoner. He soon after joined the league of feudal lords who rose against Blanche, then regent; but her influence brought him back to his duty to the king, and through his assistance she was enabled to baffle the designs of the confederates. In 1234, Sancho dying without male issue, the count of Champagne inherited the kingdom of Navarre in right of his mother. In 1239 he proceeded to the Holy Land; but he was unfortunate as a crusader, met with a dreadful defeat near Gaza, Sept. 13, 1240, and had to pay a heavy ransom for the release of his brother, who had been taken prisoner. His provinces were very prosperous under his government, and remains of edifices built by him are still found in Champagne; and he was a patron of literature and the fine arts. Although of a kindly disposition, he yielded to the religious opinions of his time, and allowed the Albigenses to be persecuted in his dominions; he even assisted, May 13, 1239, in the burning at the stake of 83 of those heretics, at Montrimer, near Vertus. He spent his latter years mostly in Navarre, and died there. Among his poems, 66 songs have been preserved and published by Lévesque de la Ravallière (2 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1742; best edition by Rocquefort and Michel, Paris, 1829). Notwithstanding the obsolete language in which they are couched, their elegance and gracefulness are still remarkable.

THIBAUT, ANTON FRIEDRICH JUSTUS, a German jurist, born in Hameln, Hanover, Jan. 4, 1774, died in Heidelberg, March 28, 1840. He was educated at the universities of Göttingen, Königsberg, and Kiel, and in 1799 became professor of law in the last named university, and in 1802 in that of Jena. In 1805 he accepted a professorship in Heidelberg, and remained there until his death. In 1826 he was

made privy councillor of Baden, in 1830 knighted, and in 1834 made a judge in the tribunal of arbiters for the domestic affairs of Germany. His great work is his System des Pandektenrechts (2 vols. 8vo., Jena, 1803), which has passed through many editions. In 1814 he published a treatise "On the Necessity of a Common Code of Laws for Germany," in which he placed himself at the head of a movement designed to form one general code, as had been done in France, instead of the confused administration of the laws under the old German, the Roman, and the French codes which had hitherto prevailed. It was opposed by Savigny in a treatise "On the Aptitude of the Present Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence," in which he maintained that Germany was not yet ready for a common legislation. Among Thibaut's other works are: Juristische Encyklopädie und Methodologie (Altona, 1797); Versuche über einzelne Theile der Theorie des Rechts (2 vols., Jena, 1798); Theorie der logischen Auslegung des Römischen Rechts, (Altona, 1799); Ueber Besitz und Verjährung (Jena, 1802); and Civilistische Abhandlungen (Heidelberg, 1814). He also founded and was one of the editors of the Archiv für civilistische Praxis (Heidelberg, 1818 et seq.) and the Heidelberger Jahrbücher. As a musical critic he wrote Ueber Reinheit der Tonkunst, which brought him into a violent controversy with Nägeli of Zürich. His posthumous works on jurisprudence were published by Gurpet in 2 vols. (Berlin, 1841-'2).

THIBET, TIBET, or TUBET, a name given by Europeans to an extensive region of central Asia, called by the natives Bod or Bodyul, "Land of Bod," and by the Chinese Si-dzang, lying between lat. 27° and 36° N. and long, 78° and 104° E.; bounded N. by Chinese Toorkistan, E. by China, S. by Burmah and Hindostan, from which it is separated by the Himalaya chain, and W. by Khoondooz and Cashmere, formerly the dominions of Gholab Singh; area estimated at 693,000 sq. m.; pop. about 6,000,000. It forms the southernmost of the three great table lands of central Asia, and the Kuenlun mountains on its northern boundary are the true watershed between the streams flowing into the Indian ocean and those into the lakes and seas of N. W. Asia. Thibet proper comprises two provinces, Eastern and Western Thibet, and belongs to the Chinese empire. Bultistan or Little Thibet, and Ladak or Middle Thibet, once forming part of it, are now tributary to Cashmere, and Bootan is partly independent and partly tributary to Thibet. The principal towns are Lassa or H'Lassa, the capital of Thibet and the sacred capital of all Buddhistic countries, a city in the same latitude with Cairo, Bassorah, Shanghai, and New Orleans, but with a climate almost as severe as that of St. Petersburg; Teshoo-Loomboo, the capital of Western Thibet, lying near the Sanpoo, a city of 20,000 inhabitants; Jega-Gungar and Shigatze, each with 100,000 inhabitants;

Tashigong, Gardikh or Gertopé on the Indus, Chaprung, Toling, Daba on the Sutlej, Bathan on the Kincha, and Tsiamdo on the Me-kiang. The Chinese viceroy resides at Teshoo-Loomboo.-Thibet has numerous lakes, the largest of which are Koko-nor and Tcharin-nor, near the sources of the Hoang-ho; Tengri-nor and Paltee, without outlets; Rhawan Rhad, 15,000 feet above the sea; and Mansarowar, at the source of the Sutlej. Nearly all of these lakes are brackish. The head waters of most of the great rivers of S. and S. E. Asia are within the limits of Thibet, as the Sutlej, the Indus, the Jumna, and 2 or 3 other affluents of the Ganges, the Brahmapootra, the Irrawaddy, the Salwen, the Hoang-ho, and the Yang-tse-kiang. The country is one of the most elevated on the globe, being surrounded by lofty mountain chains, and, though presenting a varied surface of hill and valley, seldom except in its lowest valleys less than 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, while the height of the greater part is 14,000 feet or more. The N. E. part of Thibet is a desert, cold and barren; branches of the Karakorum range, itself a branch of the Himalaya, traverse the country from W. to E., and the chain of Kuen-lun sends out its spurs in the E. The southern portion is less wild and alpine in character; and along the N. slope of the Himalaya, especially toward the W. part, are found fresh water pleistocene deposits. Generally, especially in the north, metamorphic rocks alternate with belts of granite. The soil is sterile except in the valleys. The climate in the higher districts is very cold and dry; timber never rots, but becomes so dry as to break from excessive brittleness; the flesh of animals exposed to the air dries till it can readily be reduced to powder, and is preserved for years in that condition, forming a common article of food. The limit of perpetual snow is higher on the Thibetan than on the Indian side of the Himalaya; a singular fact, which is attributed to the radiation from the sandy deserts. It varies from 16,600 to 18,000 feet above the sea, while in India it descends even below 13,000 feet, and under the equator it is usually between 15,000 and 16,000. The prevalent diseases are goitre, syphilis, ophthalmia, hydrophobia, and small pox. The mineral productions of Thibet are very .abundant. Gold is found in nuggets and veins, and in the sands of several of the rivers. Silver, mercury, native cinnabar, lead, iron, and rock salt are found in mines; but the want of fuel prevents any very large production. Lapis lazuli, turquoises, sulphur, borax, and nitre are also abundant. There are numerous mineral and thermal springs. The vegetation is scanty; there are few forest trees; the cedar and birch are the principal trees of the mountainous districts, and in the valley of the Mouran the apple, fig, pomegranate, apricot, peach, vine, and several varieties of nuts flourish. Wheat and rice are cultivated sparingly, and some buckwheat, but gray or black barley is the

principal grain and the chief article of diet. The number of animals is greater than would be expected from the scantiness of vegetation; the wild cat, tiger, leopard, lynx, badger, and bear are the principal carnivora; the graminivorous animals of Europe are nearly all found there, and in addition the yak or grunting ox, the musk deer (both said to be aboriginal there), the elephant, wild ox, buffalo, goat, the argali with its horns weighing 100 lbs., and the bhoral or long-haired sheep. Wild fowl and fish are abundant, but Lamaism prohibits them as articles of food.-The inhabitants belong to the Mongol race, and were originally nomadic. They are pliant and agile, and usually brave, generous, frank, and honest. There are also some Bootanese and Katchi or Cashmerians, who are workers in metals and merchants. The practice of polyandry is common, one woman being the wife of all the brothers in a family. The Thibetans cultivate the soil wherever it is arable, but are not much skilled in agriculture. They are very ingenious workers in gold and silver and precious stones, and make very fine woollen cloths, shawls, &c., from their fine wool and the hair of the shawl goat. Sacking and other articles are also woven in considerable quantities for the Chinese market. Cloths are dyed with great skill, and the manufacture of pottery and of idols is a thriving trade. The traffic with China is considerable, amounting to about $4,000,000 per annum. There is also a brisk trade with Nepaul, Bootan, Bengal, Assam, and Cashmere. The two first named countries obtain all their Chinese goods through Thibet. The roads of Thibet are bad, and impede the commerce of the country greatly.—The language, which is common to Thibet and Bootan, and hence called indifferently Thibetan or Bhotanta, is classed with the monosyllabic languages, though possessing some polysyllables. Its alphabet is phonetic, reads from left to right, and is evidently borrowed from the Sanscrit; the language however owes most of its derivatives and some of its root words to the Chinese. It is copious and well adapted for the expression of philosophical and religious ideas. There is an extensive literature, mainly composed however of translations and commentaries on the Buddhist sacred books. The religion of Thibet is the worship of the dalai or grand lama. (See LAMAISM.) There are some Mohammedans in Western Thibet, chiefly natives of Cashmere, and, according to M. Huc, about 8,000 Roman Catholics.-As a kingdom Thibet is said to date from A. D. 313. Buddhism was introduced in the 4th or 5th century. It became tributary to China in 1648, and the amount of the tribute was increased in 1724; but as the Chinese government renders homage to the dalai lama, and pays a sum for the support of his worship fully equal to that received as tribute, the amount paid by Thibet as a tributary nation is not of much importance. The Chinese government has its governors or repre

sentatives in most of the principal towns, and maintains a force of 60,000 soldiers in the country. The governors exert considerable influence over the Thibetan government, though it is professedly independent. The temporal as well as spiritual ruler is the dalai lama, but it is only in matters of the highest importance that he interferes. Most of the ordinary business of state is managed by his vicegerent, the nomekhan, and the four kalons or ministers, who are appointed by the grand lama for life. On the death of the grand lama the khutukhtu or grand council, composed of the highest lamas or priests, appoint his successor, or rather discover the body into which his soul has transmigrated. Some of the members of the khutukhtu are governors of the principalities into which the provinces are divided. See Huc, "Recollections of a Journey to Tartary, Thibet, and China during the Years 1844-'6," translated from the French (New York, 1856); and Turner, "Embassy to the Court of Teshoo Lama in Thibet" (London, 1800). The forthcoming work of the brothers Schlagintweit on the region of the Himalaya will contain much valuable information on Thibet.

THICK-KNEE, the common name of the wading birds of the plover family and subfamily adicnemine, peculiar to the old world. In the genus ædicnemus (Temm.) the bill is about as long as the head, with straight culmen, depressed at the base and swelled at the apex, with the nostrils in a deep longitudinal groove on each side; wings moderate and pointed, 2d quill the longest; tail long and wedge-shaped; legs long, swollen about the knees, with bare part of tibiæ and tarsi reticalated; anterior toes partly united by a web, and hind toe wanting. There are about half a dozen species, rearing their young in temperate regions and passing the winter in warmer latitudes, migrating at night and with great swiftness; they frequent dry and uncultivated places, hiding by day and feeding during twilight and at night on worms, slugs, insects, and small reptiles and mammals; they are quick runners and powerful fliers; the eggs are generally 2, laid in a slight hollow in the ground, and the young follow the mother as

soon

as hatched. The common thick-knee (E. crepitans, Temm.) is about 17 inches long and 2 feet in alar extent; the bill 2 inches, yellowish, black toward the point; head, neck, and upper parts pale tawny brown, with a dash of black down each shaft; under parts paler, yellowish white on abdomen; a pale band above and below the eyes, and across the wings; quills black. It is abundant in Asia, Africa, and S. Europe, visiting Great Britain in summer, preferring sandy plains; it is called Norfolk and great plover, and land or stone curlew, from the resemblance of its cry to that of the common curlew; the flesh of the young is said to be delicious; the eggs are ashy white, with olive brown blotches, and 2 inches long. Other species are found in Africa, Australia,

and the East Indies. In the genus esacus (Less.) the bill is longer and stronger, curved upward at the tip, and the sides are angular at the base; they are found in the wide sandy banks of the large rivers of India during winter, migrating northward as summer advances; the food consists of crabs and other hard-shelled crustaceans. Species occur in the East Indian archipelago and in Australia. This sub-family seems to form the connecting link between the plovers and the bustards.

THIERRY, JACQUES NICOLAS AUGUSTIN, & French historian, born in Blois, May 10, 1795, died in Paris, May 28, 1856. After completing his collegiate studies at Blois, he entered, the normal school at Paris in 1811, and in 1813 was appointed to a professorship in a departmental college. In 1814 he returned to Paris, became acquainted with St. Simon, and acted as his amanuensis; he even styled himself his "adoptive son" upon the title page of one of their joint productions; but, being indisposed to sanction all the socialistic views of his master, he left him in 1817, and became a contributor to the Censeur Européen, in which he published a "View of the English Revolutions," an outline sketch of one of his future great works, and several other essays, mostly upon the history or literature of England. In 1820, the publication of the Censeur Européen having ceased, he connected himself with the Courrier Français, to which he contributed Dix lettres sur l'histoire de France. In the beginning of 1821 he exclusively devoted himself to the composition of a work which was to be the embodiment of his new theory of writing history. After 5 years' incessant labor, his Histoire de la conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands appeared (3 vols. 8vo., 1825), the success of which was unparalleled, but dearly paid for; his sight had been impaired to such a degree that he was henceforth unable to read or write. Vainly did he try to recover it by rest and travel; one year later he was entirely blind. Nothing daunted by this misfortune, he resumed his wonted pursuits with the assistance of a secretary, first employing in that capacity Armand Carrel, afterward so celebrated as a journalist. In 1827 he published his Lettres sur l'histoire de France, which, beside the 10 letters that had previously appeared in the Courrier Français, comprised 15 new ones, presenting a most graphic picture of the establishment of communes in France. In 1829 he was elected a member of the academy of inscriptions. A nervous disease now preyed upon him, and while at the baths of Luxeuil in 1831 he made the acquaintance of Mlle. Julie de Querangal, a young lady of literary attainments, who became his wife. Through her help and that of a secretary, he produced, from 1831 to 1835, a series of narratives from the history of France in the 6th century, republished under the title of Récits des temps Mérovingiens, précédés des considérations sur l'histoire de France (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1840), which

was considered to fully justify the name Homère de l'histoire previously bestowed upon him by Châteaubriand, and for which he received during 15 years the Gobert prize for the most important historical work. Meanwhile he had reprinted, under the title of Dix ans d'études historiques (8vo., 1834), with a prefatory sketch of his historical views and performances, such of his papers as had appeared from 1817 to 1827 in various periodicals, and were not incorporated in his other works. In 1835 he was intrusted by M. Guizot, minister of public instruction, with the direction and control of the large publication entitled Documents inédits de l'histoire du tiers état, as an introduction to the first volume of which he wrote an Essai sur l'histoire de la formation et des progrès du tiers état, which was separately reprinted in 1853, and is, as the author himself expressed it, the "summing up of all his researches upon the history of France." His works have been reprinted many times; the best editions are the last, issued under the supervision of their author (5 vols. 8vo. and 10 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1854). The most important have been translated into English and German.-AMÉDÉE SIMON DOMINIQUE, brother of the preceding, born in Blois, Aug. 2, 1797, is also a distinguished historian. His Histoire des Gaulois (3 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1828) was a valuable addition to historical literature. During the reign of Louis Philippe he became prefect of Haute-Saône and master of requests in the council of state; and while fulfilling his official duties, he published the Histoire de la Gaule sous la domination Romaine (2 vols. 8vo., 1840-'42), a sequel to his first work. In 1851 he returned to his historical pursuits, with which he is still occupied. His Histoire d'Attila, de ses fils et de ses successeurs (2 vols. 8vo., 1856) is full of curious information. He is now (1862) publishing in the Revue des deux mondes a new series of historical papers entitled Trois ministres de l'empire Romain sous les fils de Théodose, Rufin, Eutrope et Stilicon.

THIERS, LOUIS ADOLPHE, a French historian and statesman, born in Marseilles, April 16, 1797. The son of a poor workman, through the patronage of some influential relations he was admitted to the college of his native town, afterward studied law at Aix, where he became acquainted with M. Mignet, and was graduated in 1820, but instead of following the profession devoted his attention to history and philosophy. After winning a prize at the academy of Marseilles for his panegyric of Vauvenargues, he went to Paris with Mignet in Sept. 1821, and two months later, through Laffitte's patronage, became a contributor to the Constitutionnel. His quick perception and versatility, ready wit and sprightliness of style, boldness of attack and ability as a controversialist, admirably fitted him for the daily labor of a journalist, and he soon reached a leading position. A shrewd political writer and literary critic, he proved also a skilful judge of the fine arts in his Salon de 1822 (8vo.,

Paris, 1822), and an elegant tourist in Les Pyrénées (8vo., 1823). Through activity and skilful management, he now found himself in easy circumstances, while, in spite of his awkward manners and strong provincial accent, he was the welcome guest of Laffitte and other leaders of the opposition. He profited by his intercourse with many of the most eminent men of the preceding generation to gather information upon the French revolution, the history of which he had undertaken in connection with Félix Bodin; the first two volumes appeared in 1823, and the work was completed by Thiers alone 4 years later in 10 volumes. This Histoire de la révolution Française depuis 1789 jusqu'au 18 Brumaire, bitterly denounced by the royalists, but highly appreciated by eye-witnesses of the events, won great popularity with the public at large, and has passed through more than 15 editions. On the accession of Prince Polignac to the ministry, Aug. 5, 1829, M. Thiers, dissatisfied with the moderate politics of the Constitutionnel, established, in conjunction with his friends Mignet and Armand Carrel, a new political journal, the National, which more than any other contributed toward bringing about the revolution of 1830. On the appearance of the royal decrees of July 26, the editors of the National were among the first who signed the protest of the Parisian journalists; and Thiers was foremost in proposing and supporting the elevation of the duke of Orleans, first to the regency, Aug. 1, then to the throne, Aug. 9. Three months later he was appointed assistant secretary in the department of finance, first under Baron Louis, then under Laffitte. He had been at the same time elected by the city of Aix to the chamber of deputies, where he was at first laughed at as a speaker; his bombastic style of oratory, connected with his short stature and shrill voice, made him ridiculous, and it was only after altering his style and subduing his tone that his talents as an expounder of the most intricate questions were appreciated. On the fall of Laffitte, March 13, 1831, he resigned his office; but instead of following the example of his patron, who had gone over to the opposition, he sat among the supporters of Casimir Périer, and advocated the peace policy, a hereditary peership, and several other measures that were unpalatable to the people. On the insurrection of June 5 and 6, 1832, he insisted upon the necessity of dealing severely with the republicans and the legitimists. This ingratiated him with the majority of the deputies and the court; and therefore, on the death of Casimir Périer, he became minister of the interior, Oct. 11. He succeeded, by bribing the treacherous Deutz, in arresting the duchess of Berry and suppressing the impending war in Vendée, and advised the expedition against Antwerp, which proved successful. Being transferred to the ministry of commerce and public works, he obtained a grant of 100,000,000 francs from the chamber of deputies, and

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