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gave a new impulse to internal improvements; the statue of Napoleon was placed again on the top of the column of Vendôme; the triumphal Arc de l'Étoile, the Madeleine church, and other monuments were completed or erected; canals and railroads were constructed, and under the fostering care of the administration industry revived. In 1834, on the prospect of political troubles, he resumed the ministry of the interior, and evinced personal courage in putting down the insurrectionary movements of April 12 and 13. He resigned Nov. 11; but after a succession of unfortunate ministerial combinations, he resumed his post, with Guizot as his colleague, under the premiership of the duke de Broglie. He had a narrow escape from the murderous attempt of Fieschi, July 28, 1835, and unreservedly advocated the adoption of the so called "laws of September," severely restricting the freedom of the press and the jury. New intrigues occurred in 1836; the whole cabinet sent in their resignation; but Thiers, who had secretly paved his own way, rose to the premiership, holding at the same time the ministry of foreign affairs, Feb. 22. Being however unable to persuade the king to adopt a more liberal policy at home and to show more energy in his transactions abroad, he retired, Aug. 25, and was succeeded by M. Molé. As one of the leaders of the opposition, he adhered in 1838 to the coalition which finally overthrew that minister, and was reinstated in his former position, March 1, 1840. This was the most trying period of his ministerial career; his home policy was impeded by the undecided character of the chamber of deputies; he had to maintain the September laws and retard electoral reform. In his foreign policy he was entirely outwitted by the diplomatists of Russia, England, and Austria, who had agreed to settle the eastern question without consulting France. Enraged at this consummation, and convinced that war only could again raise his country to its proper standing, he was fearlessly preparing for such an emergency, reënforcing the regular army, getting the national guards in readiness, and constructing the fortifications of Paris; but at the last he could not prevail upon the king to resort to such desperate means, and therefore, after 6 months of useless exertions and bitter disappointments, he resigned his powerless premiership, Oct. 29, being succeeded by M. Guizot, and thenceforth was never more recalled to the control of public affairs. He figured as one of the opposition leaders, bitterly censuring the policy of the Guizot cabinet in 1844, denouncing the growing influence of the order of Jesuits in 1845, and insisting upon the necessity of excluding public functionaries from the chamber of deputies in March, 1846. His powers never shone more brilliantly than during the latter part of Louis Philippe's reign; and his vehement speeches against M. Guizot's policy were extensively read and eagerly commented upon, while the articles he contributed

to the Constitutionnel, in the ownership of which he had now a share, spread far and wide the so called "reformist agitation." But, like so many others, he was taken unawares by the revolution of Feb. 1848. He vainly attempted to retrieve the falling fortunes of the king; he was powerless to check the progress of the republicans; and when their triumph was an established fact, he adhered to the new government. He appeared as a candidate for the constituent assembly, and failed, in the general election, but was on June 4 returned by 4 departments; he sat for that of Seine-Inférieure, voted for placing dictatorial powers in the hands of Gen. Cavaignac, proved himself in his speeches and pamphlets an unmitigated opponent of socialism, was one of the leaders of the so called "order party," and, after evincing little partiality for Louis Bonaparte, finally voted to make him president. A deputy in the legislative assembly and a member of the club de la rue de Poitiers, he aimed at overthrowing the republic and bringing about a monarchical restoration; but he and his friends were superseded by the superior cunning of President Bonaparte. On the morning of Dec. 2, 1851, he was arrested at his house, confined to prison for a while, and then transported to Frankfort-on-the-Main. A few months later he was allowed to return, but gave up active politics, and resumed his historical pursuits. As early as 1845 he had published the 1st volume of his Histoire du consulat et de l'empire, and had reached the 9th previous to the revolution of February. This work, which gives the fullest account of European affairs from 1800 to 1815, he now hastened, issuing one or two volumes every year; the 20th and last volume is yet to be published. An extraordinary prize of 20,000 francs has been recently awarded to it by the French institute. M. Thiers is a member of the French academy and of the academy of moral and political sciences. Beside his two great historical works, he has published several political pamphlets and an able essay upon Law et son système de finances (8vo., Paris, 1826; new ed., 12mo., 1858). He is reported to have in preparation a

"History of Florence." His biography has been written by Alexandre Laya: Etudes historiques sur la vie privée, politique et littéraire de M. A. Thiers (2 vols. 8vo., 1846).

THIERSCH, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, a German scholar, born at Kirscheidungen, June 17, 1784, died in Munich, Feb. 25, 1860. He followed the courses in theology and philology at Leipsic, and studied under Heyne at Göttingen, where he received a degree in 1808, and became a teacher in the gymnasium. He displayed remarkable talent as an instructor, and was called in 1809 to a professorship in the newly established gymnasium at Munich. He and Jacobi were among the first from northern Germany to receive royal appointments at Munich; and during the excitement raised by Christoph von Aretin he published a pamphlet entitled

Unterschied zwischen Nord- und Süddeutschland, which so increased the popular jealousy that an attempt was made to assassinate him. He established in 1812 a philological institute, afterward united with the university, and edited the Acta Philologorum Monacensium (3 vols., Munich, 1811-21). In 1813 he urged the war against France, aided the military organization of the students, and also became an enthusiastic Philhellenist. He visited France and England, was sent as a commissioner from Bavaria to demand the restoration of the objects of art which had been taken from it, met Capo d'Istria at Vienna (1814), and, without sharing in his political designs, sought to found a scientific union for the education of young Greeks. After the triumph of the Hellenic cause he travelled in Greece, and was influential in disposing the country to accept a monarch from Germany. He published on his return a work entitled De l'état actuel de la Grèce, et des moyens d'arriver à sa restoration (2 vols., Leipsic, 1833), a eulogy on the modern Greeks. He had previously produced a grammar of the Homeric dialect (3d ed., 1826), an annotated edition of Pindar, containing metrical translations (2 vols., 1820), a treatise on the epochs of sculpture among the Greeks (2d ed., 1829), and a narrative of travel in Italy (1826). From this time he was chiefly occupied in carrying out the educational plans which he had already suggested. Commissioned to investigate the state of the gymnasia of Germany, he published reports (3 vols., 1826-'37), in which he urged adherence to the classical discipline, against the partisans of so called real schools which combined classical with professional or mercantile studies. A long controversy ensued, in which he produced other works in defence and illustration of his system, which was maintained in Bavaria with slight modifications till 1853.-His brother BERNHARD (died Sept. 1, 1855) was the author of a work on the age and country of Homer (2d ed., 1832), and a collaborator on Ranke's learned edition of Aristophanes (1830).

THILO, JOHANN KARL, a German theologian, born at Langensalza, Nov. 28, 1794, died May 12, 1853. He studied theology at the universities of Leipsic and Halle, was appointed in 1817 teacher at the orphan house, and soon after at the Pædagogium of Halle, and while in this position assisted Professor Knapp, his father-in-law, in the direction of the theological seminary. In 1820 he made with Gesenius a journey through France and England. In 1822 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1825 ordinary professor of theology; and in 1833 he was made consistorial councillor. He won a high reputation by his Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti (vol. i., 1832), which surpassed all previous works on this branch of theological literature in critical acumen and correctBeside several other smaller works, he also edited Knapp's Vorlesungen über die christliche Glaubenslehre (2 vols., 2d ed., 1836).

ness.

THIMBLE (perhaps from thumb and bell), a metal cap for the finger, used in sewing to protect it from the needle. It is said to be of Dutch invention, brought to England about the year 1695 by John Lofting, who set up a workshop at Islington near London, and made thimbles with profit and success in different metals. For the use of men the thimble is commonly made without a top in the form of a wide ring, indented upon its surface with numerous small pits to catch the head of the needle. Those provided with a top are similarly indented upon this portion also. Thimbles are made of thin sheets of different metals, brought into shape by punching disks of the plate into dies. Brass was formerly a common material, which has given place to silver, and of late years gold thimbles or thimbles coated with gold have been largely used. The process of Messrs. Roux and Berthier of Paris is much recommended as making thimbles of great perfection and durability. Thin sheets of sheet iron are cut into disks of about 2 inches diameter, which being heated to redness are struck with a punch into a succession of holes of gradually increasing depth to give them the form of thimbles. The metal is then trimmed, polished, and indented with little holes regularly distributed by means of a double-toothed wheel rolled around its surface. It is next converted into steel by the cementation process, tempered, scoured, brought to a blue color, and lined with a very thin sheet of gold, which is forced in with a polished steel mandrel, which causes it to fasten to the steel as if it were soldered. Gold leaf is then applied to the outside, and is attached by pressure, the edges being secured in a minute groove made to receive them. When made of one metal only, thimbles are more rapidly produced by striking the plate into a succession of conical dies, annealing them with each successive one.

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THIONVILLE, a city of the department of Moselle, France, situated on the Moselle, about 17 m. above Metz; pop. in 1856, 10,500, beside a garrison of 2,000 men. It is connected with Metz by a railroad, and with Luxemburg and other towns by excellent roads. It has a large trade in timber and firewood, coal and coke, grain, and iron. Coal to the amount of 20,000 tons per annum is shipped from the town. About 150,000 quintals of grain and considerable quantities of leather and cut stone are exported. The iron forges and furnaces in the vicinity produce iron to the value of more than $2,400,000 annually. Some of these furnaces have been in operation since the 14th century. They produced good wrought iron by the use of mineral coal in 1823, an earlier date than any other furnaces in France attempted it.

THIRD ESTATE. See TIERS ÉTAT.

THIRLWALL, CONNOP, D.D., an English historian and prelate, born at Stepney, Middlesex, in 1797. The son of the rector of Bow

ers Gifford, Essex, he was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, was tutor, Craven scholar, Bell's scholar, and senior chancellor's medallist, received the degree of bachelor in 1818 and of master in 1821, and became a fellow. He studied law, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1825, but after 3 years' experience withdrew from the profession, entered the church, and became rector of Kirbyunder-Dale, Yorkshire. He joined with J. C. Hare in translating the first two volumes of Niebuhr's 66 History of Rome" (1828), and contributed to Lardner's "Cabinet Cyclopadia" a history of Greece (1835 et seq.), enlarged and improved in a subsequent edition (8 vols., 1845-'52). This work was the basis of a manual by Dr. Schmitz, in the introduction to which he classes it with the later production of Grote as "two English works on the history of Greece such as no other nation can boast of." Another critic says: "It is impossible not to miss in the marble coldness of the bishop of St. David's something of the animating warmth which his predecessor (Mitford) derived from his practical life as an English country gentleman; while, on the other hand, every one recognizes the abundant stores of knowledge and the tact of finished erudition with which the Cambridge scholar was so largely gifted, and which to the Hampshire squire were almost entirely denied." He was for several years examiner for the classical tripos in Trinity college, and examiner in the university of London, and is now visitor of St. David's college, Lampeter. In 1840 he received the degree of D.D., and was created bishop of St. David's. He has published separately a few sermons and charges.

THIRST, the familiar sensation by which the want of fluid in the system is made known, dependent on the condition of the stomach, throat, and fauces, and in a state of health a tolerably faithful indication of the requirements of the body. It becomes, therefore, the stimulus to the mental operations and acts having for their object the gratification of the desire; in infancy these actions are automatic and involuntary. It is generally considered as immediately resulting from an impression on the nerves of the stomach, as it is allayed by the introduction of liquids through a tube, so that the fauces are not touched; in this way speedy relief is obtained from the instantaneous absorption of the fluid by the veins of the stomach. This, however, must be taken with some qualification, as the intensity of thirst bears no necessary relation to the amount of liquid in the stomach, but indicates a want of the system which can be supplied through the blood vessels, the rectum, or the skin; in fact, the conditions are very analogous to those mentioned under HUNGER, both indicating a demand in the system to be supplied through the stomach, which in the case of thirst is indicated locally in the throat and fauces. According to Bostock, it is immediately produced by a deficiency of the mucous

secretion of the throat and fauces, ultimately depending on a peculiar condition of these mucous glands. A supply of fluid, as indicated by thirst, is necessary to make up for the losses by cutaneous and pulmonary exhalation, and by the urinary and other secretions, which are effected chiefly at the expense of the water in the blood, requiring a constant supply of new fluid. Water is the natural drink of man and beast, and the purer it is the better it supplies the wants of the system; the morbific influences of a very minute impregnation with lead and other soluble mineral poisons, of a trifling excess of saline ingredients innocuous in small quantities, and of putrescent matters in the water used for daily drink, are well known to physicians and toxicologists. Alcoholic mixtures cannot supply the wants of the blood except by their contained water, and antagonize many of the purposes for which water is required. Thirst is also allayed by tea and coffee, making up in a measure for insufficient food by lessening the waste of the nitrogenized tissues. Thirst is greatest in a dry and hot air, when the perspiration and other secretions are excessive; salted or highly spiced food, strong fermented liquors, and irritating substances and poisons applied to the intestinal mucous membrane, excite thirst, no doubt to induce an ingestion of fluid by which they may be diluted. A sudden loss of blood, either by the lancet or from a wound, or a rapid drain on the vascular system, as in Asiatic cholera, diabetes, and some forms of ascites, causes thirst in proportion to its amount. Thirst is less when the food is watery, and when liquid can be absorbed by the skin from the surrounding air or water. The thirst of fever does not necessarily indicate a pressing demand for fluids, but depends on the dryness and heat of the throat, mouth, and skin, with diminished transpiration, and is better relieved by small pieces of ice than by copious draughts of water. Any water ingested more than thirst demands does not of necessity increase the aqueous constituent of the blood, the superflous fluid being carried off by the kidneys; and moreover, absorption from the stomach is diminished when the demand is satisfied. Animals with naked skins, like batrachians, living in water or moist air, have no need to drink to quench thirst, cutaneous absorption supplying the necessary fluid; thirst can hardly be felt by the rabbit, Guinea pig, and sheep, judging from the water they consume, on account of the amount of liquids in their fresh vegetable food; carnivorous mammals drink little, and rapacious birds hardly at all, the blood of their victims allaying their thirst; the camel supports thirst for a long time, carrying a supply of fluid in the water stomach; the amount of drink taken by man depends much on habit, and more on the nature of his food, the thirst of vegetarians being generally less than that of meat eaters. The sufferings from thirst in shipwrecked sailors and in travellers in the African and Ameri

can deserts are familiar to all readers, as also the partial relief by moisture of the air and immersion of the body in salt water; they are more painful to bear than those of hunger, as is shown by the history of besieged garrisons and of persons who have attempted suicide by starvation. One of the most remarkable instances of suffering from thirst was in the case of the French frigate Medusa, lost in 1816 near the coast of Africa; of 150 persons who took refuge on a raft without food or water, 15 only survived after 13 days of intense suffering; while their hunger had become almost nothing on the 9th day, their thirst was inextinguishable, to such a degree that they drank urine; and to render their sufferings more exquisite, during their feverish sleep they dreamed of cooling shade and running brooks, to awake to a tropical sun and a briny ocean. The raging thirst of the victims of the black hole of Calcutta is another familiar instance of similar suffering. In extreme thirst, with dryness and inflammation of the fauces and throat, the perspiration, urine, and fæces are diminished, and finally suppressed; the muscular debility becomes greater and greater, soon followed by delirium, coma, and death. Abstinence from both food and drink is generally fatal in a week; hunger alone may be sustained for 6 or 7 weeks, but thirst alone for a less period. The intense thirst of Asiatic cholera has been relieved by injections of saline matters into the blood.

THISBE. See PYRAMUS AND THISBE. THISTED, WALDEMAR ADOLF, a Danish author, known under the assumed name of Emmanuel de Saint-Hermidad, born in Aarhuus, Feb. 28, 1815. He studied theology at Copenhagen, in 1840 founded a school at Skanderborg, which he directed until 1844, and in 1846, after a journey in Germany and Switzerland, became a teacher in the high school of his native place. During 1849-'50 he travelled in Germany and Italy. His travels, novels, and poems embrace some 15 volumes.

THISTLE, the common name of several genera of spiny plants of the natural order composite. The thistles are distinguished by the peculiarities of their florets, and by the differences in their downy pappus, as well as by the forms of their styles or pistils. The genus carduus with the older botanists included all plants with spiny involucres, but as it now stands comprises about 30 species, most of which are natives of Europe. A species known as the musk thistle (C. nutans) has spiny leaves and handsome drooping flowers, and is a common plant in dry chalky soils of Europe; toward evening a musky odor arises from the plant. The C. personata (cut-leaved thistle) is said to have derived its specific title from its large leaves being used for masks. The milk thistle (C. Marianus) has very spiny-margined leaves, beautifully variegated with white stripes or lines; the flowers are of a dull purple. It is frequently cultivated for its singularity and its milky ap

pearance, attributed to the Virgin Mary as she is represented in an ecclesiastical legend. The thistles of the United States are chiefly different species of cirsium, in all about 20, distinguished generically by perfect and similar, rarely subdicecious flowers, bristly receptacles, regularly or else unequally 5-cleft corolla of a purple, reddish, or else ochroleucous color, oblong, compressed, smooth, not ribbed achenia, and a plumose pappus. The common thistle (cirsium lanceolatum, Scopoli) came from Europe, and yet is too abundant by our roadsides and in rich pastures. It has a branching, somewhat hairy stem, very prickly decurrent stem leaves, smooth above, hairy and webbed beneath, and numerous handsome purplish flowers. The tall thistle (C. discolor) is very slender, 5 to 6 feet feet high; leaves sessile, pinnatifid, hairy, white and cottony beneath; flowers numerous and small, purple. The pasture thistle (C. pumilum, Sprengel) has a short hairy stem, green clasping leaves, oblong lanceolate and pinnated, the segments ciliated and spiny; the flowers few, large, purple, and sweet-scented. The Canada thistle (C. arvense, Scop.) is a native of Europe, and in cultivated soils has extended through the United States and overrun the wheat fields of Canada. It is considered the greatest pest in the fields, and can only be subdued by ploughing up and patiently extracting its viviparous subterranean roots. The yellow or horrid thistle (C. horridulum, Michaux) is a tall, rough, disagreeable plant, with large, axillary, and terminal flower heads of yellow florets; it grows best very near the sea coast.-The cotton thistle (onoperdon acanthium, Linn.) has become naturalized in New England, though adventitious from Europe. It is a tall, stout, and very showy plant, with large, decurrent, spiny, and downy whitish leaves, and large, light, purple flowers appearing in July. The blessed thistle belongs to a very extensive genus, and is the cnicus benedictus of Linnæus, introducing itself into Louisiana, though native to the Levant.-Many plants bear the name of thistle belonging to quite distinct families. The thistles are regarded as weeds, and are eradicated only by perseverance and industry. Their seeds are eagerly sought for by birds of the sparrow tribes.

THISTLE, ORDER OF THE, a Scottish order of knighthood, reputed on very insufficient grounds to be of great antiquity, but which Sir Harris Nicolas is of the opinion had no existence as an organized fraternity previous to 1687, when a warrant for its restitution was issued by James VII. of Scotland and II. of England. It fell into abeyance after the abdication of James, but was restored by Anne in 1703, and is now one of the recognized orders of the British empire. The warrant of 1687 confined the number of knights to 12, beside the sovereign; but since May, 1827, it has been permanently extended to 16. It was formerly customary to admit none but Scottish peers into the order, but the rule is not now strictly

observed. The principal decorations are a gold collar, composed of 16 thistles interlaced with sprigs of rue, to which is suspended a small image of St. Andrew and a St. Andrew's cross of silver, in the centre of which is a thistle surrounded by the motto of the order (which is also that of Scotland): Nemo me impune lacessit, and from which emanate silver rays forming a star.

THOLUCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST, D.D., a German divine and pulpit orator, born in Breslau, March 30, 1799. Descended from very humble parentage, he first learned a trade, but by the assistance of friends attended the gymnasium of his native city and the university of Berlin. When he left college he delivered a eulogy on Mohammedanism as equal in beauty and merit to the Christian religion; but during his university course he was thoroughly converted from his pantheism and scepticism under the influence of the lectures of Schleiermacher and Neander, and more especially by personal intercourse with Baron von Kottwitz, a member of the Moravian brotherhood. In 1821 he was graduated as licentiate of theology, and began to deliver lectures as Privatdocent. In 1824 he was appointed extraordinary professor of oriental literature, in the place of Dr. De Wette, in 1825 made a literary journey to Holland and England, and in 1826 was called to the university of Halle as ordinary professor of theology, in the place of Dr. Knapp. There he has lived and labored ever since, with the exception of a short resi dence at Rome in 1828-'9, in the capacity of chaplain to the Prussian embassy. He is also university chaplain and consistorial councillor. He had at first to suffer a good deal of persecution from the prevailing rationalism of his colleagues, but succeeded in effecting a radical change, the whole theological faculty of Halle now being decidedly evangelical. Dr. Tholuck is perhaps of all contemporary German divines the most fertile author. His principal works are as follows: "Sin and Redemption, or the True Consecration of the Sceptic" (Berlin, 1825, many times reprinted; translated into English by Ryland, with an introduction by John Pye Smith, republished in Boston, 1856), in opposition to De Wette's "Theodore, or the Consecration of the Sceptic" (1825); Blüthensammlung aus der morgenländischen Mystik (1825), a collection of translations from the mystic poets of the East; "Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans" (4th ed., 1842; twice translated into English), the first exegetical fruit of the new evangelical theology; "Commentary on the Gospel of John" (1826; 7th ed., 1857; translated into English by Kaufman, 1836, and by Dr. C. P. Krauth, Philadelphia, 1859), less thorough and permanent, but more popular and better adapted for students, than his other commentaries; "Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount" (1833; 3d ed., 1844; translated into English by R. L. Brown, Edinburgh, 1860), his most learned, elaborate, and valu

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able exegetical production; "Commentary on the Hebrews" (1836; 3d ed., 1850); "Commentary on the Psalms" (1843; translated into English, Philadelphia, 1859); "The Credibility of the Gospel History" (1837; 2d ed., 1838), a vindication of the Gospels against the mythical theory of Strauss; and Hours of Christian Devotion" (2 vols., 1840), containing several original hymns. He has published several volumes of sermons since 1829, and two volumes of "Miscellaneous Essays" (1839). He is now (1862) engaged upon a "History of Rationalism." Several small volumes have appeared (1852, 54, and '61) on the preparatory history, in which he gives, mostly from manuscript sources, an account of the condition of Lutheran theology and German university life during the 17th century.

THOM, JAMES, a Scottish sculptor, born in Ayrshire in 1799, died in New York, April 17, 1850. He was brought up to the trade of a stone cutter, and first showed his talent for sculpture by the production of a head of Burns and some portrait busts, which gained him considerable local celebrity. These were followed by his well known group of "Tam O'Shanter," carved out of the common gray stone used for building purposes. Of this group and that of "Old Mortality," which is now deposited in the Laurel Hill cemetery, near Philadelphia, he was employed to make many duplicates, and both works were widely exhibited in Great Britain and the United States. In 1836 he removed to the United States, and settled in Orange co., N. Y.

THOM, WILLIAM, a Scottish poet, born in Aberdeen in 1799, died in Dundee in March, 1850. He was apprenticed at an early age to a weaver, and throughout life followed that occupation, dying at last in extreme need. He did not attempt composition until near the age of 40, and his earliest strains were extorted by the contemplation of his own poverty and by grief at the death of his wife. Rising soon after into some celebrity, he was brought to London, and complimented by his countrymen with a public dinner. Unfortunately no more substantial testimonial followed this ovation. In 1844 appeared his "Rhymes and Recollections of a Handloom Weaver," which met with but a moderate success.

THOMANDER, JOHAN HENRIK, a Swedish theologian, born in the province of Scania, June 16, 1798. He studied theology at the university of Lund, and was appointed in 1819 teacher at the school of Karlshamm, in 1821 pastor of the same place, in 1827 lecturer on theology at the theological seminary at Lund, in 1833 professor of pastoral theology, and in 1838 member of a committee for drafting a new code of church laws. In 1840 he was elected a representative of the clergy in the Swedish diet, in which he soon distinguished himself as one of the most brilliant speakers of the liberal party. In 1850 he was made provost of the cathedral of Gothenburg, and in

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