Timothy, and particular directions are given him with regard to various classes of persons. The second epistle was written during the captivity of Paul at Rome, and while he was in expectation of martyrdom. It gives instructions on Christian steadfastness and fidelity (ch. i.); exhorts Timothy to constancy (ch. ii.); warns him against false teachers, invites him to come to Rome, and gives information of many of the companions of Paul (ch. iii. and iv.). The two epistles to Timothy, together with the one to Titus, are comprised under the name pastoral epistles. Recent commentaries on them have been written by Heydenreich (Hadamar, 1826), Hatt (Tübingen, 1831), Mack (Tübingen, 1836), Mathies (Greifswalde, 1840), and Ellicott (London, 1861).

TIMOTHY GRASS (phleum pratense, Linn.), a gramineous hay plant, much cultivated in New England and New York, where it is also called Herd's grass, from a Mr. Herd, who, according to Jared Eliot (1750), found it in a swamp near Piscataqua, and in Pennsylvania, where it is known by the first name, derived, it is said, from Mr. Timothy Hanson, who first introduced it either from Europe or from New England, and extensively cultivated it. Loudon says that Mr. Hanson introduced it from America into England, but other authorities call it a native of Europe. In England it is called the meadow cat's tail. Its stem or culm rises to the height of 2 to 4 feet, and is smooth and round; its leaves are flat, rough on their upper surfaces; the sheaths long and striate, smooth; the stipules blunt; the flower spikes long, cylindrical, upright; the flowers consisting of 2 truncated and awned glumes fringed upon their backs, and of 2 membranaceous paleæ, distinct styles with white stigmas, and the stamens with purple anthers. Although coarse and hard if allowed to ripen its seed, timothy grass, cut when in blossom or soon after, is greatly relished by stock, and is found to possess a large percentage of nutritive matter. It is well adapted to laying down reclaimed bogs, such as abound in peat, and in instances where 4 tons have been produced per acre the timothy has constituted the bulk of the hay. In drier lands, though its yield is fair, yet it is at a disadvantage because it is tardy in aftergrowth, and needs shading at the roots with clover. Another European species (P. alpinum, Linn.) occurs among the White mountains of New Hampshire, and to the northward.

TIMOUR, or TAMERLANE (a corruption of Timour Lenk, i. e., Timour the Lame), an oriental conqueror, born in the village of Sebz, in the district of Kesh, about 40 m. S. E. from Samarcand, in 1335, died in Otrar on the Jaxartes, Feb. 19, 1405. He was the son of the chief of the Turkish tribe of Berlas, which inhabited Kesh, and on his mother's side was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan. His birth happened in a period of general anarchy, and of constant and petty wars between the powers which had come into possession of the empire

of Genghis. At 12 years of age he entered military life, and in 1361 became chief of the tribe of Berlas, and succeeded in expelling from the kingdom of Transoxiana the khan of Kashgar, who had invaded it with an army of Getes or Calmucks. In this war he was once plunged into a dungeon, from which he escaped, swimming in his flight the broad stream of the Jihoon; and he also received a wound in the thigh at the siege of the capital of Sistan, which left him permanently lame. He had during these scenes of tumult supported the cause of Hussein, khan of northern Khorassan, and after having driven out the Calmucks he married the sister of that powerful chief. With him he had frequent contentions, being unwilling to endure either an equal or superior, and on one occasion sent him the message that "he who wishes to embrace the bride of royalty must kiss her across the edge of a sharp sword." At last the difference between them broke out into an open war. With a body of horsemen numbering only 250, he surprised and took the city of Nakhshab, defended by a garrison of 12,000, and in 1366 totally defeated his rival near his capital Balkh. Hussein was put to death, and Balkh taken in 1369, after a siege of 3 years. In the same year a general diet was held, and Timour proclaimed khan of Jagataï, Samarcand being chosen as his residence. He now aspired to the dominion of all the countries once under the power of Genghis Khan, and attacked the neighboring princes in detail. The khan of the Getes, ruling the country between the Jaxartes and the Irtish, was forced to render homage, and in 1379 the khan of Khiva was conquered. He then undertook the reduction of Khorassan, and received the submission of a part of it, but was met with a fierce resistance by Gaiyath-ed-DeenPir-Ali, whose capital was Herat. His efforts were all in vain, and the taking of his capital by storm paved the way for the easy conquest of the remainder of the country. All Khorassan was now in his power; but the town of Sebsewar revolted, was stormed, and 2,000 of the inhabitants while still living were placed upon one another, until the whole pile assumed the shape of a tower, and the layers of human beings were then fastened together by mortar. Aspiring now to the conquest of the world, Timour fixed his eyes on Persia, ruled by petty tyrants, who were successively beaten. All Persia was soon in his power, and the country between the Tigris and the Euphrates, from the sources to the mouths of those rivers, submitted to his authority, and the Christian princes of Georgia also became his tributaries. An invasion of Timour's territory by Toctamish, whom he himself had established in the Mongol empire of the north, led to the conquest of western Tartary. The pursuit of his enemy having led the conqueror of the East into the provinces of Russia, he threatened Moscow, marched to the south, and sacked and burned Azof at the mouth of the Don.

He now

turned his attention to the conquest of India, at the idea of which his emirs at first revolted. "The rivers!" said they, "and the mountains and deserts! and the soldiers clad in armor! and the elephants, destroyers of men!" But the conqueror was neither to be terrified nor turned aside. The vast army crossed the Indus in 1398 at the passage of Attok, and, after a long march, in which he massacred 100,000 captives, stood before Delhi. A battle was fought in the plain near the city, and the stately capital of Hindostan became the prize of the victors. He penetrated still further into the country, when he was recalled by the news of insurrections in Georgia and Anatolia, and of the designs of Bajazet, sultan of Turkey. His first care was to crush the rebellion in Georgia, and as the Mongol and Ottoman conquests now bordered upon one another, a collision was soon rendered certain. Timour overran Syria, then a dependency of Egypt, and having stormed the revolted city of Bagdad, July 9, 1401, left in the public places of the town a pile of 90,000 slaughtered human beings. At last the two great armies of the sultan and the Mongol conqueror met on July 20, 1402, on the plains of Angora, and the former was totally defeated, and captured in attempting to save himself by flight. The story that Timour placed his royal prisoner in an iron cage is now deemed doubtful, but in spite of the authority of the Persian historians of the times, it is almost certain that Bajazet was treated harshly, and not long afterward he died. Timour's dominions now covered all Asia from the Irtish and Volga to the Persian gulf, and from the Ganges to Damascus and the archipelago. He might have added Europe to his conquests, but he had not a single galley to transport his army over the narrow sea which divides the two continents, nor could he prevail upon either the Turks or the Greeks to furnish him with any means of transportation. Both submitted to pay tribute to the oriental conqueror, however, and he was also gratified with the nominal allegiance of the sultan of Egypt. He now retired to Samarcand, and spent two months in festivities, but did not long remain idle. He had planned an invasion of China, from which the house of Genghis had recently been expelled, and previous to his return from his Ottoman conquests had sent an army beyond the Jaxartes to prepare the way for his own advance. At the head of 200,000 veteran troops he began his march, crossed the Jaxartes on the ice, and had already gone a distance of 300 miles from his capital when he was overtaken by death. His army was disbanded and the invasion of China was given up. He died after a reign of 36 years, all of which was spent in military operations, and left 36 sons and grandsons and 17 granddaughters. A large proportion of his conquests, especially in the northern and western parts of Asia, were lost immediately by his successors, among whom constant dissensions

prevailed. Even his race would have become extinct, had not one of his descendants fled before the Usbeks of the north to accomplish the conquest of Hindostan.-The great authority for the life of Tamerlane is the Persian history of Sheref-ed-Deen-Ali, to whom the journals of his secretaries were intrusted, and whose work has been translated into French by Pétis de la Croix under the title of Histoire de Timur-Bec, connu sous le nom du grand Tamerlan (4 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1722). The writings attributed to Timour are only known to exist in Persian, and are of questionable authenticity. The "Institutions," with an English translation and a valuable index, was published at Oxford in 1783 (4to.) by Major Davy and White, the professor of Arabic, and has also been translated into French by Langlès. The "Commentaries" of Timour have been translated from a manuscript of Major Davy by Major Stewart, late professor of oriental languages in the East India company's college, and published by the oriental translation committee of London. These only contain his life from his birth to his 41st year, no version having as yet appeared of that portion containing his last 30 years of war and western conquests. The latest work is a translation of the narrative of Clavijo, envoy of Henry III. of Castile to Timour, by C. R. Markham (Hakluyt society, 1860).

TIN (Lat. stannum), a metal resembling silver in color and lustre, though presenting a yellowish tint when the white light reflected from its surface is excluded; symbol, Sn; chemical equivalent, 59; specific gravity, 7.29. It is harder than lead and softer than gold, melts at 442° F., and is not sensibly volatilized at high temperatures, though at a strong red heat it emits white fumes. When very slowly cooled from a melted condition, it becomes crystalline, presenting either rhombic plates or octagonal needles, which are distinctly brought to view by treating the external surface with dilute aqua regia. The surface thus prepared is ornamental, and the French make use of this material (moire métallique) for the covers of snuff boxes, &c. The crystalline structure of the metal is the cause of the peculiar crackling sound emitted when a bar of tin is bent backward and forward; this sound is designated by the French le cri d'étain, or tin cry. Considerable heat is developed by the friction of the particles of metal upon each other. Tin is very malleable, especially when its temperature is raised to 212°. It is readily rolled or beaten into sheets not more than

of an inch thick, and is drawn into fine wire. The metal, however, is deficient in tenacity, a wire of inch diameter sustaining only 343 lbs. weight. At ordinary temperatures tin is slowly tarnished by exposure to air and moisture, but when melted its surface is soon covered with a film of oxide, and at high temperatures its oxidation takes place so rapidly as to cause ignition, and the metal

burns with a brilliant white light. A current of steam passed over the melted metal produces the same oxidizing effect. The product of combustion is first a pulverulent gray oxide, and then a yellow white powder called putty of tin, which is the binoxide, consisting of oxygen 27.2 and tin 100. Tin is violently attacked by nitric acid, and slowly by strong hydrochloric acid heated, while it is not affected by dilute sulphuric acid. It combines with several other metals, and forms with them a variety of useful alloys, as also the amalgam employed for silvering mirrors. (See AMALGAM, BRITANNIA METAL, BRONZE, MIRROR, PEWTER, and SPECULUM.)-Tin was used by the ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, and Greeks, and was an especial object of the Phoenicians in their voyages to the southern coasts of Britain. Although it is questioned whether the bedil of Ezek. xxvii. 12, Numb. xxxi. 22, Isaiah i. 25, &c., is correctly rendered by the Greek kaoσίτερος, and this by the English tin, there is no question but that the bronze vessels and implements of very remote periods, found at Thebes and other parts of Egypt, are in part composed of tin, which metal Wilkinson suggests the Egyptians may have obtained from Spain or India long before the voyages of the Phoenicians into the Atlantic. Tin is frequently named in the Iliad, and appears to have been a metal with which the Greeks were familiar. Homer speaks of it as being employed for the raised work on the exterior of shields, for making greaves, and binding together parts of armor, as also for household and ornamental purposes; and, as remarked by Wilkinson, the Greek word named above, translated tin, "is the same as the Arabic name kasdeer, by which the metal is still known in the East. It is also called kastira in Sanscrit." Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, and other ancient writers describe the commerce carried on by the Phoenicians with certain islands off the coast of Britain, named, on account of the quantity of tin there obtained, the Cassiterides. These islands were doubtless the Scilly islands, S. W. of Cornwall, and may have been visited to receive tin brought to them from the tin region of Cornwall; or the Phoenicians, who carefully concealed the real source of their profitable commerce, may have given them this name to mislead the Romans, who long sought to discover the secret. Interesting papers upon this subject may be found in vols. iii. and iv. of the "Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall;" see also "Report on the Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset," by Sir Henry de la Beche, p. 522. Spain as well as Cornwall furnished this metal to the Phoenicians; and both countries were to this enterprising race what America at a later period was to the Spaniards. In exchange for valuable metals, the early navigators gave earthenware vessels, oil, salt, various implements of bronze, and other objects easily manufactured by a skilful people,

and possessing much value among the rude natives of the mining regions. It is supposed that the beautiful bronze swords, daggers, and spear heads occasionally found in England in the graves of the ancient Britons, were brought into the country for this purpose by the Phonicians. In the middle ages Cornish tin was largely used for the bells of churches, and at a later period it was in still greater demand for bronze cannon. The Cornish mines in the reign of King John appear to have been managed principally by Jews. Discoveries are still occasionally made of the ruins of furnaces, which are called Jews' houses; and small blocks of tin of an ancient date are also met with, called Jews' tin. The history of these mines is recorded in the "Survey of Cornwall," by Richard Carew (1602, reprinted 1769); in the "Natural History of Cornwall," by the Rev. Richard Borlase (1758); and in various other English publications. Tin mines were discovered in the district of Meissen and in Bohemia in the 12th or 13th centuries; and in 1250 the low price at which the Germans sold their tin seriously affected the English trade. Spain still yields some tin. Other important European localities of tin at the present time are Altenberg in Saxony; Zinnwald and Schlackenwalde in Bohemia; near Limoges in the department of Haute-Vienne, at Pyriac near Nantes, in Loire-Inférieure, and at Villedieu in Morbihan, France; and in Dalecarlia, Sweden. The ore is abundant in the Siberian mining district of Nertchinsk; and in southern Asia, it has been very extensively worked in the island of Banca since the discovery of the mines in 1710. In 1751 there were produced here 370 tons; in 1852, 5,235 tons; and in 1853, 3,745 tons. More ancient mines have also been worked to a considerable extent in the Malay peninsula in the province of Tenasserim; in 1853 they yielded 900 to 1,000 tons. There are others in the N. portion of Burmah, and also in Madagascar. Tin ore is imported into England from Victoria in Australia, where it occurs in broken transparent crystals in the deposit gold mines. As early as 1850, 9 tons 9 cwt. of tin were imported from Australia; in 1854, 81 tons tin and 52 tons ore; in 1855, 49 tons ore; in 1856, 350 tons ore; and in 1857, 816 tons ore. On the American continent, the ore is found in Brazil, Peru, Chili, and Mexico. Peru supplied very variable quantities, amounting in 1856 to 239 tons tin and 371 tons tin ore and regulus. The tin product of Bolivia has been stated to attain 3,000 tons annually, which is enormous, but the produce is certainly very large. The Mexicans obtained tin from the mines of Tasco, of which they made bronze for cutting instruments of great hardness, and small pieces of tin in shape of a T were used for money. Cortes had bronze cannon made with the tin of Tasco. Tin in Greenland is associated with cryolite. In the United States, a few small crystals of the oxide of tin have been found at Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass.,

and also at Lyme, N. H. At Jackson, N. H., is a vein which has furnished small specimens of the ore, and the metal has been detected in the magnetic iron ores of the highlands of New York and New Jersey, and in some of the auriferous ores of Virginia. In California it is found in such quantity as to encourage the hope of its becoming an important product. Native tin is reported to have been met with in small grayish white grains in the gold washings of Siberia. The only ore that is worked is the binoxide, SnO2, also termed cassiterite, tin stone, &c. It occurs in a variety of forms, as crystallized in right prisms with a square base, also in rolled pieces, called stream tin, among the sand and gravel of superficial deposits, and in concretionary forms, resembling wood in their fibrous structure and concentric layers. The last variety is often known as wood tin. It is in mammillary and kidney-shaped masses, sometimes of a clear brown, and sometimes of a blackish brown color. The concretions are occasionally met with enveloping crystals of quartz in layers, at first parallel to the faces of these crystals, and gradually becoming bent and circular in the external layers. The crystallized oxide of tin has more resemblance to several earthy minerals, as brown idocrase, zircon, &c., than to metallic ores. It is distinguished however by its great weight, its specific gravity being 6.3 to 7.2. Its hardness is 6 to 7. The crystals are usually of brilliant lustre, brown or black, sometimes red, gray, white, or yellow. Tantalum, iron, manganese, and columbic acid have been found in small quantity in specimens of tin ore. Mixed with borax and carbonate of soda, the ore is easily reduced by the blowpipe on charcoal, but alone it is infusible, and in acids it is insoluble. Several artificial compounds of tin and oxygen are obtained possessing acid properties. Metastannic acid (Sn, O10) is a white, crystalline, insoluble mass, obtained by treating metallic tin with nitric acid. After being treated with cold water and then rendered anhydrous by ignition, it constitutes the polishing material known as putty powder, used for giving whiteness and opacity to enamels and for polishing plate. Another oxygen compound is stannic acid (SnO, HO), which combined with soda forms a compound largely prepared as a mordant for the use of the dyer and calico printer. It is the basis of what is technically known as tin-prepare liquor. The salt is also used for tinning copper. Three compounds of tin and sulphur are known, of which the bisulphuret is used in the arts as an imitation of bronze under the name of mosaic gold. The protochloride and bichloride of tin are used in dyeing and calico printing. The former has a strong affinity both for chlorine and oxygen, and acts as a powerful reducing agent. When added to a solution of chloride of gold, a purple powder is precipitated, which is an obscure compound of sesquioxide of tin and oxide of gold. It is known as purple of Cassius, and is used for col

The

oring porcelain and glass, with which it is incorporated by fusion.-The geology of the tin veins of Cornwall has been noticed in the account of the mines of that region in the article COPPER MINES, vol. v. p. 684. Until the last century it was the tin alone that gave value to these mines; and when in working them yellow copper ores took the place of tin in depth, as was generally the case, the mines were abandoned. When the mines have afterward been worked for the sake of the copper, they have again in many instances been found productive of tin at still greater depths. modes of occurrence of tin ores are various. Their original source is in veins, in many of the larger of which the ore is obtained in crystalline masses associated with pyritous iron and copper and with ores of antimony and arsenic. The gangue of the veins consists of quartz, fluor spar, heavy spar, and apatite, with which are found tourmaline, mica, topaz, wolfram, and other minerals. It is also found diffused through small veins and threads clustered together and penetrating the rock in certain lines, or disseminated through the mass in proportion sufficient to render it profitable to work, though the particles of ore may be imperceptible to any but an experienced eye. A fourth mode of occurrence is in alluvial deposits, in which lumps are found that have been washed from the larger veins, and present a rolled appearance like nuggets of gold found under the same conditions. These deposits have been worked from the earliest periods of tin mining, and for centuries all the tin of Cornwall was obtained from them exclusively. The ore they produce is known as stream tin, from the application of currents of water employed to separate it from its earthy and stony accompaniments. Some of these alluvial deposits have attained a great depth, even within the historic period. Thus at the Carnon tin stream works, N. of Falmouth, the excavations have been carried to the depth of 50 feet, where the tin pebbles are found overlaid with vegetable accumulations containing human skulls, remains of deer, and trees in the place of their growth. The small flat veins are sometimes very numerous, running between the layers of killas from one large vein to another, and are known as tin floors. When the ore is disseminated in small veins and particles through masses of rock, which is usually the variety of porphyry called in Cornwall elvan, the repository is sometimes worked open to the day like a quarry. The veins with which the rock is charged are often mere threads, and seldom exceed 8 or 9 inches in thickness; and even these are so irregular and interrupted, that their direction or inclination cannot always be determined. This mode of occurrence of ores is called by the Germans a Stockwerk. The principal veins of tin are found in three districts, the first and most productive in the S. W. of Cornwall beyond Truro, the second around St. Austell, and the third near Tavis

tock, in Devonshire.-Stream tin, being a pure ore, requires no preparation for the reduction process; but that obtained from the veins, being much mixed with other ores and stony matters, requires to be carefully sorted and dressed. When obtained from lodes which yield copper ore also, the two kinds are separated as well as may be by hand, and the best and purest fragments of tin ore are kept by themselves, and those less rich form another division. The latter are reduced to powder under heavy stamps, large batteries of which are worked in connection with the mines. The pulverized ore is washed away from the stamps by a strong current of water, and in the first vats through which it passes the richer and coarser particles are deposited. The remainder passes on through the dressing apparatus, consisting of buddles, tossing tubs, shaking tables, &c., by which it is separated as completely as possible from its accompanying impurities. The concentrated ores are next roasted in reverberatory furnaces in order to decompose the sulphurets and arseniurets, the fumes from which pass off into a chimney through condensing chambers, in which the arsenious acid is collected. When purified by another sublimation, this is converted into the white arsenic of commerce. The roasting of a charge of 6 to 10 cwt. of ore requires from 12 to 18 hours. The heat is very gradually raised till it reaches a dull redness, and occasionally during the process the door is opened and the charge is raked over the hearth. On its ceasing to exhale white fumes it is withdrawn from the furnace and falls into an arched chamber beneath, where it is allowed to cool. It is then again washed, by which it is easily freed from the chief portion of its impurities. But if much copper is present, the roasted tin ores are commonly placed in a vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid, which dissolves the copper without affecting the oxide of tin, which after washing in pure water is ready for the smelter. The mineral wolfram (a double tungstate of iron and manganese), which accompanies some tin ores, is so nearly of the same specific gravity with the oxide of tin, that they cannot be separated by mechanical means; and it is then necessary to decompose the wolfram by mixing a little carbonate or sulphate of soda with the ore and heating this to redness in a reverberatory furnace. The tungstic acid unites with the soda, forming a soluble compound, which may be removed by water, and after crystallization be employed by the calico printers as a mordant. The smelting of tin ores was conducted by very rude methods even into the 17th century. Remains of old furnaces are occasionally met with in Cornwall and Devon, with remnants of the scoria produced in the operations and of the peat that was used for fuel. As an evidence of the imperfection of the process, samples of the scoria have been found to contain 22.85 per cent. of oxide of tin. Some of the furnaces or hearths were cavities excavated in the

ground, in which the fires were no doubt kept up by a blast. Pit coal was first successfully used in the reign of Queen Anne, and soon after reverberatory furnaces were invented and found to be better adapted than the blast furnaces hitherto in use for reducing the ores. At the present time this kind of furnace is used in Cornwall exclusively for the common class of ores, which are mixed with anthracite dust or other pulverized carbonaceous matter and heated by fires of bituminous coal. Blast furnaces are used only for the best ore or stream tin, and for this only when it is desired to obtain very pure metal. Tin ores are smelted near the mines with fuel brought from Wales, as return freight for vessels which carry copper ores to be reduced in the great smelting establishments at Swansea. Tin smelting in reverberatory furnaces is conducted in establishments termed smelting houses, and the blast furnace operation in what are known as blowing houses. In the former process the charge consists of 20 to 25 cwt. of ore containing from 60 to 65 per cent. of tin, mixed with pulverized anthracite and a small quantity of slaked lime or fluor spar as a flux for combining with the silicious portions of the ore. After the charge

has remained in the furnace 6 or 8 hours with the doors closely shut, and subjected to a high heat which has been gradually increased in intensity, a door is opened at the further extremity of the furnace under the escape flue, and the melted matter is worked up with a long paddle in order to determine its condition and separate the metal from the slags. When the reduction appears to be complete, the latter are raked out upon the floor and sorted. About † of the whole should be free from metal and requires no further treatment. Another portion may contain 4 or 5 per cent. of tin in small shot, which may be separated by stamping and washing. A third portion, consisting of the scoriæ last raked out, is so rich in tin as to be saved for the next melting process. The melted metal is then drawn off through an opening in the side furnace into a cast iron pot, and a new charge is introduced into the furnace. The scoria adhering to the tin soon rises upon its surface and is skimmed off, and the metal is then ladled into rectangular moulds. It still contains so many impurities, as iron, arsenic, copper, and tungsten, together with some oxide of tin, that it is necessary to subject it to further processes of refining. The blocks are laid up together near the fire bridge of the furnace, and gradually brought to the point of fusion. As they melt the tin flows down the hearth and into the outer basin, and an infusible dross of ferruginous matter remains behind. More blocks of tin are charged; and this liquation or sweating operation is continued till about 5 tons of melted metal are collected. The dross is then removed, to be afterward returned to the furnace with the stamped and washed scoria of former processes. The metal in the pot is