refined by sinking into it green wood held by an iron frame, which causes a violent ebullition with the evolution of gases and aqueous vapor. A scum formed of oxide of tin and other oxides collects upon the surface, and is skimmed off to be returned to the smelting furnace. The boiling with green wood is continued for about 3 hours, and another hour is allowed for the subsidence of the fluid metal. This diminishes in purity from the top down; the upper portion, which is pure metal, is carefully ladled into cast iron moulds and set aside as refined tin; the middle portion produces tin of second quality; while the lowest is so impure, that it is necessary to subject it again to the reduction process. A method called tossing is sometimes employed instead of refining by the introduction of green wood; this consists in keeping the fluid metal in agitation by lifting up portions in a ladle, and letting them fall from a considerable height into the pot, whereby oxidation of the foreign metals is effected, and their collection upon the surface in a scum. The purest variety has been found to contain 99.76 per cent. of tin and 0.24 per cent. of copper; common tin, 98.64 per cent. of tin, 1.16 of copper, and 0.20 of lead; and the poorest, which is only fit to be returned to the furnace, 95 per cent. of tin. About 30 cwt. of coal is consumed for every ton of metallic tin obtained, and the loss of the metal in the process is about 5 per cent. Smelting in a blast furnace, formerly practised to some extent in Cornwall, and generally at the present time in the Erzgebirge in Saxony, involves the consumption of a larger proportion of fuel, and an average loss of 15 per cent. of metal, owing to the oxidizing effects of the blast; but the tin obtained by it, on account of the better quality of both ore and fuel, is much superior to that made by the other method. The old English blast furnaces were only about 6 feet high, and those of the Germans are about 10 feet high. The bottom stone is made much thicker in the back than in the front, so as to present a considerable slope toward the breast of the furnace. Diffused matters continually flow down this surface and under the front wall into a receptacle hollowed out of a mass of granite and lined with a mixture of clay and powdered charcoal. In this the separation of the slags from the metal takes place, and as they float upon the surface they are removed, while the metal itself is occasionally drawn off through a tapping hole in the front of the basin, into a smaller receptacle in which it is refined by thrusting into it a pole of green wood. The slags and different varieties of metal are treated like those obtained by the other smelting process. The tin is cast in moulds of white marble into blocks of different sizes, the largest of which weigh about 3 cwt.; it is from these that the commercial term block tin is derived. Another form in which the metal is sent to market is termed grain tin; this is produced by heating the blocks in a bath of melted tin, and when the metal has

assumed a crystalline structure it is taken out and shattered by a blow into long crystalline fibrous columns.-Tin is used in a pure state for a few purposes only; sometimes for the bearings of wheels and also for dyers' kettles, but more particularly in the condition of foil for a variety of purposes. The metal is beaten into very large sheets, some of which measure 200 by 100 inches, which is as thick as a common card. These are cut up and reduced to small sheets not exceeding of an inch in thickness. The process is, to first reduce it between rolls, and then hammer it one sheet at a time upon a large iron surface or anvil. The hammers employed for this purpose are provided with very long handles, and are worked with great skill and caution to avoid making holes in the sheet. What is known as the white Dutch metal is much thinner than the common sheets, mentioned above. Tin foil is used for coating Leyden jars, and for making the amalgam used for electrical machines, and more largely for enclosing small packages of tobacco and spices, covering tops of champagne bottles, &c., to exclude the air. The only use of the large sheets is for silvering looking-glasses. (See MIRROR.) Tubes of pure tin are used for gas fittings, and have been recently applied to the construction of cheap vessels for containing the liquid colors used by artists, as also other solid and fluid substances required to be hermetically sealed and at the same time admitting the abstraction of small quantities. Tin wire is soft, moderately tenacious, completely inelastic, and admits of being bent and unbent many times without breaking.-The most important application of tin is for the coating of plates of sheet iron, producing what is known as tin plates or sheet tin, or, as called in Scotland, white iron. The Romans understood the art of coating copper with tin, and their vasa stannea are supposed to have been made of the former metal and overlaid with tin. The disagreeable and injurious qualities of the copper were thus obviated, while the advantages of its strength and facility of shaping were retained. The coating was easily effected by dipping the copper vessel, when thoroughly clean, into melted tin;* but iron did not so readily take this coating, nor was it produced in thin sheets, and the method of preparing these and cleaning them for this purpose appears not to have been discovered until the 17th century. It is supposed to have been first practised in Bohemia, and was introduced into Saxony in 1620, and into England in 1670. The first successful works in operation in England were established at Pontypool about the

The method of tinning copper now practised is to clean niac, then sprinkling rosin over it to prevent oxidation, and the heated surface of the metal by rubbing it with sal ammopouring on melted tin, which is spread over the surface with tow, the workman keeping the metals at a high temperature. The addition to the tin of lead renders the operation easier by the greater fusibility of the alloy; but the introduction of lead may be objectionable from the danger of poisonous effects, similar to those it is desired to guard against by covering the copper with a harmless metal.

year 1720. The method of rolling iron invented by John Payne in 1728 at once furnished the means of producing plates adapted for this operation; and these are now carried to a high degree of perfection through successive improvements in the manufacture of iron, brought about in great measure in consequence of the need of a superior quality of sheet iron for this use. The best of pig iron, and that specially adapted for making the strongest and most ductile wrought iron, is selected, and is converted in a chafery or hollow fire and a finery in which charcoal is employed as fuel, and which causes the plates to be known as charcoal tin plates. A light spongy coke is also used, made from very pure bituminous coal, and purified while hot by the action of steam, which is found to answer an equally good purpose with charcoal. When converted into blooms, these are reheated and worked over several times, and drawn down into bars and plates; the latter are repeatedly doubled and passed through rolls, trimmed at the edges, reheated, and again rolled and doubled, till sometimes 16 distinct thicknesses are passed together between the rollers as one. Care is taken that they are not heated so high as to be welded together, and they are partially separated from time to time. When sufficiently rolled, the rough edges of the pile are cut off by a pair of shears, and the plates are divided across to reduce them to the required dimensions. They are then taken apart, the imperfect ones are rejected, and the good ones, called black plates, are immersed for 15 or 20 minutes in dilute sulphuric acid, which removes the scale of oxide, and leaves them with a clean dull gray surface. They are then rubbed with sand and water and washed, after which, being of a brittle texture, they require to be strengthened by annealing. Large numbers of them are placed in cast iron boxes, the covers of which are carefully luted down to prevent air entering, and the boxes are placed in a sort of reverberatory furnace, in which they are kept at a cherry red heat for 12 hours. They are then taken out, and the covers being removed the plates are examined, and those which are injured and adhere to one another through excessive heat are rejected; some may also be injured by partial oxidation, owing to penetration of air into the boxes. Those in good condition present a purplish surface derived from a thin external film of oxide. They are now in a cold state passed several times through very hard and smooth polishing rolls, thus acquiring a surface of extreme smoothness and lustre, but somewhat mottled from superficial oxidation. The rolling renders them brittle, so that they require annealing again, which is conducted at a milder temperature than before, and in about half the time. After this the plates are again sorted, and the good ones are again pickled for 10 minutes in sulphuric acid more diluted than before, and rubbed with sand and water. They are now perfectly clean, and ready to be tinned. Though

by being exposed to the air a few moments they become rusty, they may be kept as long as desired immersed in pure water without risk of injury. With great care to keep them perfectly clean, they are removed to the tinning apparatus or "stow," which consists of a series of rectangular pots arranged in a long stack, each one over a separate fire to keep the materials it contains in a fluid state. The first of these, called the tinman's pot, about 2 feet long, 15 inches wide, and 20 inches deep, contains melted grease in which the plates are immersed and left till all the moisture upon them has evaporated. The second, called the tin pot, contains melted tin covered with a layer of grease; and into this the plates are next passed and left for about 20 minutes. The third, called the washing or dipping pot, consists of two compartments, each containing melted tin, the second of the purest quality, which as it becomes alloyed with iron is removed into the first compartment, and thence back to the second or tin pot. The plates are passed from the tin pot into the molten tin of the first compartment, and are left long enough to complete the alloy and to separate any superfluous tin adhering to the surface. They are then taken out one by one, laid upon a smooth portion of the stack, and after being wiped with a brush of hemp are dipped quickly into the pure tin of the second compartment, and immediately afterward into the fourth or grease pot, which is filled with melted grease carefully maintained at the proper temperature. The object of this is to allow any superfluous tin to run off, and more especially, by maintaining a uniform temperature, to prevent a more rapid cooling of the surface, which would cause the alloy to crack. After immersion for 10 minutes the plates are removed to the fifth pot, containing tallow heated to a lower temperature. The plates are thus annealed, and all that remains is to remove an edging of tin which usually forms around them. This is effected by dipping them into the last and smallest pot of the series, which contains melted cast iron over a bottom of tin of an inch deep. When immersed in this, the edging melts and is removed by a quick blow on the plate with a stick. To finish the plates for the market, they are cleaned of grease and dirt by rubbing them with bran and then with sheepskin. Defective plates are picked out and rejected, and the others are packed in boxes which are branded on the outside with the marks indicating the size and quality of the plates.-Iron is sometimes first coated with zinc, and when the surface has been cleaned by washing in acid or otherwise, it is tinned by dipping it into the fused metal, the surface of which is covered with fatty or oily matters. Rolled sheet or plate zinc when thoroughly cleaned is readily tinned by dipping it into the melted metal when heated to about its temperature. The zinc should not be left so long as to become alloyed with the tin beyond the mere surface.

1815.. 1820.

2.941 1848.

2,990 1849.

The value of the tin per ton ranges in different years from £112 to £130, and the price has increased of late years.-The tin mines of Banca are next in importance to those of Cornwall. These are deposit mines, and are worked by excavations, carried down through beds of sand, clay, and gravel, sometimes to the depth of 20 or 25 feet. Soon after the discovery of the ore in the early part of the last century, the island was overrun by Chinese miners and adventurers, and the most favorable spots near streams of water were soon worked out. Between 1750 and 1775 it is supposed that they produced annually about 60,000 piculs or 120,000 ingots, and after 1780 not more than half this amount; and of late years the product has still further decreased. The smelting operation is conducted only once or twice a year, usually between February and April, in blast furnaces described as 10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4 feet wide. The fireplace occupies a depression 3 feet deep in the middle, with a basin-shaped receptacle beneath it for the refined metal. The bellows is a wooden cylinder formed out of a single tree, and charcoal is employed as the fuel. On account of the heat of the weather the fires are run only at night, during which from 44 to 45 ingots are cast in sand moulds. The mines are in a granitic region, an account of which by Thomas Horsfield, M.D., is published in the "Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia,” vol. iii., No. 7 (1848); see also "American Journal of Science," second series, vol. vii., p. 86. Tin is also found throughout the greater part of the Malay peninsula, and upon many of the islands between it and Java. The product of the mines is collected chiefly at Batavia, from which the exportation under the Dutch government amounts to about 2,000 tons annually. The quality of the tin of Malacca and of the islands differs very much according to the locality of its production, owing, as is supposed, to the difference of skill in the smelting process. The operations at Banca are said to be carried on upon a larger scale and more skilfully than at any other place in this region, and the metal from this island is consequently more highly valued. At Singapore, which is an important mart for this product, the price of tin has fluctuated of late years from $14 to $20 per picul, equal to about $11.75 to $16.75 per cwt. At

Total....

$5,866,096 $5,188,667 $6,425,967 $5,826,197 TINAMOU, a name applied to the tinamida, a family of rasorial or gallinaceous birds peculiar to South America. The bill is moderate, rather straight, flattened, the base covered by a membrane, and the tip suddenly hooked; wings short and concave; tail short or wanting; tarsi rather long, scaled in front, and without spurs; toes long, with stout blunt claws, the hind one sometimes wanting. They live in the fields on the borders of woods, are low and heavy fliers, but rapid runners, and feed on grains, fruits, and insects, often visiting newly sown spots to pick up the seeds; they lay about a dozen eggs, on the ground in tufts of grass, and the young when hatched soon disperse; such is their indisposition to fly, that when pursued they endeavor to hide in the bushes, and are often caught by a noose on the end of a stick; their flesh is exceedingly good; they vary from 18 to 6 inches in length, and are usually of a reddish or gray brown. In the genus tinamus (Lath.; cryp turus, Illig.), the bill is shorter than the head, the upper mandible the longest, and the nostrils in the middle; first quill short, 4th and 5th longest; hind toe small and elevated. The great tinamou (T. Brasiliensis, Lath.) is about 15 inches long, of a deep olive color, slightly and narrowly banded with black, with crown red and secondaries red and black; pale reddish ash below; it is found in Guiana and Brazil, resembling in size, habits, colors, and quality of flesh, the partridges of the old world; though gentle and timid, it is said not to be capable of domestication. The males have a trembling plaintive whistle to warn of danger or attract the females; they live in couples during breeding time, at other seasons in small flocks; they seek their food in the morning and evening, scratching on the ground and covering themselves with dust like the common fowl. The nest is made on the ground in a slight hollow, covered with dry grasses; they lay twice a year; the young follow the parent as soon as hatched; they are said to roost on trees 2 or 3 feet from the ground. In the genus rhynchotus (Spix) the bill is longer than the head, slightly arched, the upper not overlapping the under mandible, and the tail is not visible on account of the numerous long soft coverts. The rufescent tinamou (R. rufescens, Wagl.) is 15 inches long, ashy red above,

banded with white and black; yellowish red below waved with brown; sides ashy. It inhabits the borders of the lakes and the swampy thickets of Paraguay in small troops; the eggs are 7, of a violet color; it is killed for its flesh, which is delicately white when cooked. In the genus tinamotis (Vigors) the bill is shorter than the head, the tail concealed by the pendulous coverts, the tarsi short and robust, and the toes short and thick, with claws broad and very convex above, and the hind toe wanting. There are only 3 or 4 species, inhabiting high, dry, and desert places, generally at some distance from fresh water, and feeding on seeds and small fruits; in some points these birds come near the bustards.

TINCTURE, in pharmacy, a solution, commonly colored (whence the name), of medicinal substances, usually in proof or diluted spirit, and with the same mixed with ammonia. This and ether are also used alone as the solvents, and preparations in which these are employed are known respectively as ammoniated and ethereal tinctures. Some highly colored acid solutions, as the preparations of chloride of iron, &c., are also called tinctures. This class of medicinal preparations are included under the more general name of extracts, and the methods of producing them have been described under that head. Compound tinctures are those containing two or more medicinal principles.

TINDAL, MATTHEW, an English theological and political writer, born at Beer-Ferris, Devonshire, about 1657, died Aug. 16, 1733. The son of a clergyman, he was educated at Lincoln and Exeter colleges, Oxford, took the degree of bachelor in 1676, and was elected to a fellowship at All Souls', which he retained through life. He was created LL.D. in 1685, and soon after became a Roman Catholic. As he returned to the church of England just before the revolution of 1688, he was charged with changing his creed according to his political interests. His own explanation was that he went to the university without religious opinions, adopted Catholicism without examination, and abandoned it upon reflection. After the revolution, of which he was a zealous partisan, he became an advocate, sat as judge in the court of delegates, and received a pension from the crown of £200. He had already produced several pamphlets in favor of the government, when in 1706 he published a volume entitled "The Rights of the Christian Church asserted, against the Romish and all other Priests that claim an independent Power over it." It was an elaborate attack on high church principles, and involved him in a controversy with William Wotton, Dr. Hickes, and others, which continued several years. He published two defences of it, and in 1709 reprinted them, and also two other essays on the law of nations and the liberty of the press. In 1710 he attacked the party of Dr. Sacheverell in a pamphlet entitled "New High Church turned Old PresbyVOL. XV.-32

terian;" but the house of commons on one day condemned Sacheverell's sermons, and on the next ordered Tindal's "Rights of the Christian Church" and the second edition of his "Defences" to be burned. This was the occasion of three more pamphlets from him, followed by many others in succeeding years on the current political questions. In a personal controversy between him and Walpole, after the resignation of the latter in 1717, several pamphlets were written on each side; but he was afterward an active defender of the ministry of Walpole. In 1728 he published two polemic "Addresses," in reply to pastoral letters of the bishop of London, Dr. Gibson. His most important work, "Christianity as Old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature," appeared in 1730. It expressly denies that Christianity contains any truth which the human reason might not have discovered for itself, and by implication denies that it is a special revelation. "Under pretence," says Warburton, "of advancing the antiquity of Christianity, he labored to undermine its original." Among the many answers which it called forth were treatises by Waterland, James Foster, Conybeare, Leland, and Chapman. The last writings of Tindal were in its defence. He left a second volume of "Christianity as Old as the Creation," only the preface to which has been published.

TİNDALE, WILLIAM. See TYNDALE. TING-HAI, a town of China, province of Che-kiang, capital of the island of Chu-san, situated on the S. side of the island, in lat. 30° N., long. 122° 6' E.; pop. 35,000. It stands in the valley of Yung-tung, about 900 yards from the beach, with which it is connected by a causeway and two canals about 4 feet deep. The city is strongly walled and fortified, nearly encircled by a canal 33 feet wide and 3 feet deep, and several canals traverse it in different directions. The streets are narrow and paved with granite, with sewers underneath. The chief public edifices are two temples dedicated to ancestors and to the guardian idol of the city. The suburb of Tau-tan extends along the shore and forms one long street, at the E. end of which is a hill surmounted by a temple. There are some manufactures, and cabinet making and carving are carried on. The harbor is one of the best on the coasts of China, and is accessible by 3 or 4 passages. Some trade exists. The city was bombarded and captured by the English in July, 1841, and again in October of the same year.

TINTORETTO, IL, an Italian painter, born in Venice in 1512, died there in 1594. He was the son of a dyer, and from the occupa tion of his father derived the name by which he is commonly known, his true name being Jacopo Robusti. His early instruction was acquired in the school of Titian, where, however, according to the common account, he remained but a short time in consequence of the jealousy or dissatisfaction of his master,

who dismissed him with the remark that "he would never be any thing but a dauber." Undiscouraged by this harsh treatment, he commenced a rigorous course of self-instruction, and placed over the apartment in which he pursued his studies the inscription, Il disegno di Michel Agnolo; il colorito di Tiziano ("The drawing of Michel Angelo and the coloring of Titian"), as expressive of the principles he intended to follow. He was, however, of too vigorous and original a genius to rest contented with the reputation of a successful follower of either of these masters, but aspired to become the founder of a school, which should supply whatever was deficient in their styles. Beside copying the works of both, he was in the habit of designing from plaster casts by lamplight in order to acquire skill in the use of chiaroscuro, the result of which practice may be seen in the union of strong shadows with the rich Venetian coloring which gives so peculiar a character to his pictures. In like manner he improved himself in the science of perspective and foreshortening by suspending his models in various positions from the ceiling by means of cords. He soon rose into great reputation among the Venetians, ranking with Paul Veronese as one of the last of the great painters of the golden age of Italian art; and in his best period his quickness of invention and the facility and rapidity of his execution were unequalled perhaps by any painter. He sought rather than avoided difficulties, and is even said to have frequently dispensed with any preliminary design or sketch, and to have composed his picture as he went along, indicating with a few patches of color the liveliest forms and expressions, and crowding his canvas with a multitude of figures in every attitude that a fertile but reckless imagination could conceive. His performances are necessarily unequal, the grossest faults being frequently found in close proximity with the highest beauty; whence the remark of Annibale Carracci, that Tintoretto was sometimes equal to Titian, at others inferior to himself; and it may be said of his works generally, that, despite their grandeur, dramatic vivacity, brilliancy of coloring, and luxuriant invention, they are deficient in artistic arrangement and in the elevation which properly belongs to history. Consequently, among the amazing number of pictures which he produced, his portraits, giving less scope to the impetuosity of his genius, stand preeminent. He also exhibited the characteristic excellence of his school in landscape painting, the intensity of his imagination being such, according to Ruskin, that "there is not the commonest object to which he will not attach a range of suggestiveness almost limitless, nor a stone, leaf, or shadow, nor any thing so small, but he will give it meaning and oracular voice." History however was the department in which he chiefly delighted, and in which the characteristic excellences and defects of his style are

most apparent; and upon his great historical pictures in Venice his reputation mainly rests. Elsewhere, it has been observed, most of his works exhibit only his infirmities. His masterpieces are undoubtedly the two immense compositions representing St. Mark rescuing a tortured slave from the hands of the heathen, and the "Crucifixion," both painted in his best period; the former, perhaps the finest picture in the world for action, is now in the academy of Venice, and the latter, described by Ruskin as "beyond all analysis and above all praise," in the Scuola di S. Rocco, where are also 61 other large compositions by Tintoretto, each containing many figures of the size of life. The doge's palace is almost equally rich in his works, and contains, among other remarkable pieces, a representation of paradise 84 feet long and 34 feet high, painted, like almost every thing he produced, in oil. Nothing else on so vast a scale was probably ever painted on canvas. His frescoes are comparatively few. In the latter part of his life he degenerated into a corrupt style, chiefly remarkable for coarseness of invention and a slovenly mechanical execution, of which his "Last Judgment" and Worshipping of the Golden Calf," in the church of Sta. Maria dell' Orto, are melancholy examples. The rapidity of invention and execution which gained him the name of Il furi080 Tintoretto, and which Sebastian del Piombo well illustrated by saying that Tintoretto could do as much in two days as he could do in two years, seems never to have deserted him; and in the maturity of his powers he wrought so fast and at so low a price, that few of the contemporary painters of Venice could get employment. Many of his works were bestowed gratuitously upon convents, and for others he received barely sufficient to pay for the materials.

66

Tintoretto has found an enthusiastic panegyrist in Ruskin, who has devoted considerable space to the description of his works. See "Stones of Venice," vol. iii. pp. 324–353.

TIOGA. I. A S. co. of N. Y., bordering on Penn., and intersected by the North branch of the Susquehanna river; area, 480 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 28,739. The surface is very hilly and the soil generally fertile. The productions in 1855 were 260,074 bushels of Indian corn, 452,978 of oats, 21,293 of wheat, 25,884 of rye, 91,402 of buckwheat, 150,518 of potatoes, 169,183 of apples, 38,401 tons of hay, 1,365,783 lbs. of butter, and 80,144 of wool. There were 2 furnaces, 17 grist mills, 146 saw mills, 12 tanneries, 45 churches, and 4 newspapers, and in 1859 10,875 pupils attending public schools. The North branch is navigable in this county, and immense quantities of timber are annually floated to market. It is intersected by the Erie and the Cayuga and Susquehanna railroads. Capital, Owego. II. A N. co. of Penn., bordering on N. Y., and drained by the Tioga river and its affluents; area, about 1,100 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 31,045. The surface is hilly and heavily timbered, and the soil better adapt