to Venice. In 1532 he was again in Bologna at the request of the emperor; and between 1532 and 1535, according to the commonly received account, he resided in Spain, where he is said to have executed the most important of his works now in that country. Later researches, however, have rendered it doubtful whether he ever visited Spain at any time. His style of living had hitherto been frugal and unpretending, notwithstanding the great reputation he enjoyed throughout southern Europe; but as he approached old age he began to live with splendor. The most powerful princes of Europe were eager for specimens of his art, and their demands, together with his own enthusiasm, afforded constant incentives to his industry. At 65 years of age he retained the vigor and freshness of youth, while the magic charm of his color and the cheerful serenity of his style seemed to mellow with time. He was the intimate friend of the poet Aretino and the architect Sansovino, and his position as painter to the republic brought him into familiar relations with the chief aristocracy of Venice. In 1543-5 he revisited Bologna and Ferrara, where he painted the emperor Charles V. for the 3d or 4th time, and Pope Paul III.; and after passing some time in the employment of the duke of Urbino, he repaired to Rome. His finest production here was the picture of the old pope with his nephews, Cardinal Farnese and Duke Ottavio Farnese, which is in every respect a masterpiece of historical portraiture. While engaged in this city upon a picture of Jupiter and Danaë, he was visited by Michel Angelo, who, after expressing admiration of his coloring, observed that if he had been early grounded in the principles of drawing, he would rank as the first painter in the world. In 1548 he was summoned by Charles V. to Augsburg, where he was created a count palatine of the empire (although this distinction is also said to have been conferred upon him during his alleged residence in Spain), and placed on the imperial pension roll. After the abdication of Charles he continued in great favor with his successor Philip II. of Spain, for whom he painted a number of important works; but his pension was thenceforth constantly in arrears, and he was frequently obliged to petition the Spanish officials for the sums due him for pictures. The remainder of Titian's life was passed principally in Venice, but it was long before his pencil gave indications of the weakness or timidity of age. His "Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," in the Jesuit's church in Venice, painted when he was 81, is one of his largest and grandest compositions; and at least one of his celebrated Magdalens, that in the Escurial, was executed even later. At 90 years of age sorrow rather than time began to affect him, and, notwithstanding he clung resolutely to his art for consolation, the vigor and beauty of his style became impaired. In his 97th year he received Henry III. of France, who passed through Venice on his way from Poland, with a mag

nificence of hospitality and a courtly grace of manner which charmed all beholders; and two years later, while yet occupied with his art, he fell a victim to the plague, the fatal consequences of which he might have escaped had the nature of the distemper been understood by the Venetian physicians. His latest work, a dead Christ with the Virgin and attendant saints, now in the academy of Venice, "shows certainly," says Kugler, "that his hand trembled beneath the weight of ninety and nine years; but the conception of the subject is still animated and striking, the colors still glowing, while, Titian-like, the light still flows around the mighty group in every gradation of tone." By a special exception in his favor he was buried in the church of Santa Maria de' Frari, where a black marble slab, inscribed "Tiziano Vercellio," marks his resting place.— The works of Titian comprise sacred and profane history, mythological subjects, portraits, and landscapes, the last named being generally treated in connection with other subjects, though not always in subordination to them. His long life and unceasing industry will account for the enormous number of pictures passing under his name distributed among the galleries of Europe, many of which, however, are not well authenticated. He is still seen to the best advantage in Venice. Of his early pictures, which reflect the style of the Bellini modified by the peculiar ideas derived from Giorgione, the most noticeable are the "Visit of Mary to Elizabeth," in the academy at Venice; the Vierge au Lapin, in the Louvre; the "Christ with the Tribute Money," at Dresden; and particularly the "Resurrection," painted in 5 compartments, in the church of S. Nazzaro, at Brescia. The more developed period which succeeded the death of Giorgione comprises nearly all the pictures by which he is now known, and of these only the chief ones can be here designated. The first in celebrity of these perhaps is the "St. Peter Martyr," in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo in Venice, which ranks with the "Martyrdom of St. Lawrence" among the painter's masterpieces, and which, for invention, action, and the grandeur of the landscape, has always been considered of the first order of excellence. The academy of Venice contains his Assumption" and "Presentation of the Virgin," and the Manfrini palace in the same city the "Entombment of Christ," which Kugler considers "perhaps the most important of Titian's pictures, and the noblest representation of the subject." In addition to these may be mentioned the "Last Supper," in the Escurial, upon which the artist informed Philip II. he had labored 7 years; a "Virgin and Child with Saints," in the Uffizi gallery; the "St. Sebastian," in the Vatican; the "Christ crowned with Thorns," in the Louvre; various well known Magdalens in Rome, Florence, the Escurial, and elsewhere; and numerous Madonnas, Holy Families, and similar pieces scattered over Europe. Upon

subjects taken from allegory and secular history he executed several important pictures, including the "Victory of the Venetians over the Janizaries," for the doge's palace, which were destroyed by fire. As a colorist merely Titian developed the resources of his art with most success in the naked female figures which are so frequently met with in his mythological pictures; although he is here not unfrequently betrayed into an ostentatious exhibition of his mastery over his materials. Of this class of his works the most familiar examples are the several Venuses in the galleries of Florence and Dresden; the Danaës at Naples and Vienna; the Flora in the Uffizi gallery; "Diana and her Nymphs" and "Venus rising from the Sea," in the Stafford gallery; "Venus and Adonis" (a duplicate), in the British national gallery; and the so called Venus del Pardo in the Louvre. In the romantic symbolical style developed by Giorgione he produced many pictures combining his characteristic excellences as a painter of landscape and figures, of which the "Three Ages" in the Bridgewater collection, and "Sacred and Profane Love" in the Borghese palace, may serve as examples. As a portrait painter he is still unrivalled, whether we consider the "senatorial dignity" of his old Venetian nobles, "by the side of whom all modern gentlemen look poor and small," or the glowing beauty and happy consciousness of existence which characterize the celebrated female portraits known as "Titian's Mistress," in the Louvre, La bella di Tiziano in the Uffizi gallery, and the various "Titian's Daughters," all widely known through copies. Nearly every great potentate of Europe of the 16th century was painted by him; and soldiers, statesmen, poets, and ecclesiastics almost without number were among his sitters. The list includes Charles V., of whom he executed several portraits; his successors Ferdinand I. and Rudolph II.; Philip II. of Spain, whom he also painted several times; Francis I. of France; the sultan Solyman II. and his wife Roxana; Popes Clement VII., Paul III., and Paul IV.; all the doges of his time; Francesco, duke of Urbino, and his duchess, Eleonora; the constable de Bourbon; the cruel duke of Alva; Andrea Doria, doge of Genoa; Cesare Borgia; Count Castiglione; Cardinals Ippolito de' Medici, Bembo, Sforza, and Farnese; the poets Ariosto, Aretino, Fracastaro, and Bernardo Tasso; the architect Sansovino, and many others, the whole comprising a collection which would form a complete historical gallery illustrative of the times in which he lived. Lastly, as Fuseli has remarked, "landscape, whether it be considered as the transcript of a spot, or the rich combination of congenial objects, or as the scene of a phenomenon, dates its origin from him."

TITICACA, LAKE, in the republic of Bolivia, South America, occupies the centre of one of the most remarkable terrestrial basins known on the globe. It is 160 m. long and from 50

to 80 broad, and discharges through the valley of El Desaguadero, to the S. E., into another lake called Lake Aullagas, which is probably kept at a lower level by evaporation or filtration, since it has no known outlet. The surface of the lake is 12,846 feet above the sea, and it is the most elevated body of water of similar size in the world. It has been sounded to the depth of 120 fathoms, but is supposed to be much deeper. The level of its waters has decreased very much in the historical period; and it is evident that they once surrounded the elevation supporting the ruins of Tiahuanico, 12 m. distant. Vast quantities of rushes grow on the shores of the lake, frequented by water fowl, and 7 or 8 varieties of fish are peculiar to its waters. Its W. side is barren, excepting in gold-washings and mines of silver and copper. On the E. shore, maize, wheat, and the fruits of the temperate zone flourish in great perfection, and here also are found considerable quantities of timber. Although far removed from the ordinary channels of travel and trade, almost inaccessible, and in parts stony and sterile, the country bordering Lake Titicaca supports a population of more than 1,000,000. It seems to have been the seat of the highest and most ancient civilization of South America, and of a people who have left gigantic monuments of their power and skill. (See TIAHUANICO.) It was from this centre, according to the traditions of the Incas, that the great lawgiver and teacher of the Peruvians, Manco-Capac, diffused his influence; and it has also been maintained that here was the original seat of the Aymara or Inca race.

TITLARK, the popular name of the small dentirostral birds of the sub-family motacil line and genus anthus (Bechst.). They resemble the larks in their markings and in the long hind claw, and the wagtails in their movements and habits on the ground, and evidently are intermediate between these sub-families. In this genus the bill is rather straight and slender, with the tip notched; wings very long, the first 3 quills equal and longest, and the tertials nearly as long as the primaries; tail moderate and slightly notched; tarsi and toes long and slender, the hind toe long with a very long sharp claw. The species are numerous, inhabiting most parts of the world and in every variety of region, some being migratory, others permanent residents. The nest is made upon the ground, of dry grass and stalks, lined with finer plants and hair, and the eggs are 4 to 6. The American titlark (A. Ludovicianus, Licht.) is 63 inches long and 11 in alar extent; olive brown above, each feather darkest in the middle; beneath yellowish brown, the sides of the neck spotted longitudinally with dark brown; around eyes and superciliary stripe yellowish; central tail feathers like back, the others blackish brown, the external one mostly white and a white spot at the end of the 2d; primaries edged with whitish, and the other quills with pale brownish; bill and feet black. It is very

generally distributed over North America, extending to the Pacific and to Greenland, and is accidental in Europe. The flight is exceedingly easy and graceful; it occurs in flocks of tens or hundreds, running fast on the ground, vibrating the tail whenever it stops, not squatting like the larks, but moving the body on the upper joints of the legs; it often alights on fences and branches, walking on them with ease. It is found in the fields, on the prairies, along rivers, and on the sea shore; the notes are clear and sharp tweets, the last much prolonged; it breeds as far N. as Labrador, both sexes incubating, and sitting so closely as almost to allow themselves to be trodden upon before flying; the eggs are 6, by inch, reddish brown, with darker dots and lines at the larger end. It is very similar to the A. obscurus and spinoletta (Bechst.) of Europe, though the latter has a longer bill and less slender tarsi and toes, and has no yellowish superciliary stripe; the outer tail feathers are not white, and the spots are less distinct below.-The Missouri titlark (neocorys Spraguei, Sclater) is 5 inches long and 9 in extent of wings; it is a stouter bird than the last, with shorter bill and tail and larger feet and hind toe; the 1st quill is the longest; it is wood-brown above, the feathers light-edged, and dull white below, with less numerous spots on the breast; the legs and bill are yellow. It is found in Nebraska, and in song and habits comes the nearest of American birds to the European skylark.-Among the European species the most extensively distributed is the meadow titlark or pipit (A. pratensis, Bechst.), also called titling; it is 6 inches long and 94 in alar extent, olivaceous above, spotted with dusky; brownish white below, tinged anteriorly with red; neck, sides, and fore part of breast with oblong brownish black spots. It is of slender and elegant form, generally distributed over Europe, a permanent resident in Great Britain, and most abundant in meadows; it sings from the middle of April to the end of July, and rears 2 broods in a season; its notes are remarkably fine, uttered when perched, seated, or flying, in the latter case commencing at a considerable height, hovering a little while, and descending warbling to the ground. It is in the nest of this species that the cuckoo generally places its eggs to be hatched by parents not their own. The tree titlark (A. arboreus, Bechst.) is 6 inches long and 111 in alar extent, much like the last, but with thicker bill and shorter and more curved hind claw; it prefers wooded districts, and perches on trees much of the time, whence its name; the song is more mellow and modulated and longer continued than in the preceding species, the bird beginning it from the top of a bush or tree, rising like a skylark, but to a moderate height, then with outstretched wings and expanded tail making a half circle in its slow descent till it reaches a treetop again; it is migratory in England. The shore titlark (A. obscurus, Bechst.) is 6 inches long and 104

in alar extent; above dull olivaceous with obscure dusky streaks, and yellowish gray below. It is called also rock and sea lark. It frequents the sea shore, following the retreating tide, searching for small mollusks and crustaceans with the wading birds; its song is a shrill and not very agreeable warble, performed in the air; it is most abundant in S. Europe.

TITLES OF HONOR, designations by which persons are addressed in consequence of some office or dignity in their possession or inherent in them. The Greeks used them sparingly, and they were bestowed among the Romans chiefly upon men who had gained particular distinction in certain offices, in which case the designation became hereditary. Thus the honorary title of Magnus pertained to the descendants of Pompey, as those of Africanus and Asiaticus did to the Scipio gens. Other offices carried their titles with them, independent of the merits or services of the incumbent, and the words Cæsar, originally the name of a family, Augustus, and pater patria, were gradually applied indiscriminately to all who held the imperial throne. The title "illustrious," previously given only to those who had gained reputation in arms or letters, became in the reign of Constantine the Great hereditary in the families of princes, and thenceforth every son of a prince was illustrious. Toward the decline of the empire the emperors styled themselves divinities, and were addressed as “your perpetuity," your eternity." The title most esteemed of all, however, and which preserved its significance the longest, was that of a Roman citizen. The titles assumed by European sovereigns, whether emperor, king, czar, or prince, are invariably accompanied by certain complimentary phrases of address, as "your majesty," your "royal highness," which are generally common to all of them. Previous to the accession of the Tudors the sovereigns of England were addressed as "your grace." Henry VIII. first assumed the title of highness, which was formerly given only to kings, and which is still the prerogative of people of royal birth; and at the field of the cloth of gold in 1520 he was first called "your majesty" by Francis I. of France. This title however had been previously assumed by Charles V. James I. was the first "sacred majesty" of England, and he added to his titles those of "most dread sovereign, his highness, the most high and mighty prince, James I.," &c. The present occupant of the British throne is called "Victoria, by the grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, &c., queen, defender of the faith." The compellation "sire" (father) seems to have been peculiar to the kings of France. Elsewhere in Europe the practice does not differ greatly from that of England in the phraseology of the terms applied to persons of the highest dignity, although in some countries, particularly Germany and Spain, the national taste has invented the most inflated titles for the sovereign. It is related that the emperor Charles V. hav

ing filled the first page of a letter to Francis I. with a list of his own titles, the latter prince in his reply styled himself simply king of France, citizen of Paris, and lord of Vauves and Gentilly. A similar anecdote is related of the banker Zamet, who, when asked by a notary by what title he wished to be designated in a legal document, replied: "Call me owner of 1,700,000 crowns." European potentates, however, are far surpassed in the number and magnificence of their titles of honor by those of other parts of the world. Thus the king of Ava in writing to a foreign sovereign calls himself "the king of kings, whom all others should obey; the cause of the preservation of all animals; the regulator of the seasons; the absolute master of the ebb and flow of the sea; brother to the sun; and king of the four and twenty umbrellas," the last named title having reference to the umbrellas carried before him as a mark of his dignity. Some royal titles, which would not be very reputable in European countries, are nevertheless highly valued in other parts of the world; and the king of Monomatapa in southern Africa is pleased to be addressed by his flatterers as "great magician" and "great thief." Certain Roman Catholic sovereigns prefix to the title of majesty common to all of them a qualify ing epithet, commonly called a predicate, as "catholic" for Spain, "most faithful" for Portugal, and "apostolic" for Hungary. Under the old régime the king of France was called "his most Christian majesty."-The various orders of nobility in England are carefully distinguished by titles of honor, by which in legal proceedings and on certain public occasions the representatives of them are designated. The qualifying epithets by which such persons are addressed are also nicely graduated in accordance with the kind and degree of the dignity possessed by them, the baron being styled simply "right honorable," while a duke is addressed as "your grace," and the "most noble," and upon certain occasions as most high, potent, and noble prince." In like manner the baron is addressed by the crown as "right trusty and well beloved," and the duke as our right trusty and right entirely beloved cousin and councillor." The children of peers have also their titles of honor, such as honorable, lord, or lady, which however are not hereditary. The continental orders of nobility correspond generally with those of England, but the compellations of the persons possessing these dignities exhibit many minute and nice distinctions. The degrees of ecclesiastical rank are no less carefully distinguished. The pope is styled "his holiness," a cardinal "his eminence," an archbishop "his grace," and so on, down to the possessors of the inferior dignities, who both in Europe and America generally adopt the prefix of "reverend." In England the archbishops of Canterbury and York, beside the title of "grace," style themselves "by divine providence" and "by divine per

mission;" and the bishops are addressed as "lords" and as "right reverend." The degree in which the holders of civil offices are addressed by titles of honor varies considerably in different parts of Europe; and while in England comparatively few persons are so distinguished, the Germans regard the insignificance of the office as no obstacle to a recognition of the title pertaining to it. The tax-gatherer is not unfrequently addressed as "Mr. Tax-gatherer," and his wife as "Mrs. Taxgatheress;" and the title of Rath or councillor has been so widely distributed through all the branches of the government, and often in such infelicitous connections, that its significance is greatly impaired. It may be observed that the title Mr., formerly a compellation of respect, is now the common prerogative of persons in Great Britain who have no hereditary or official title, and is universally so applied in the United States. An analogous practice prevails on the continent of Europe. In the state of Massachusetts the governor is entitled by law to be addressed as "his excellency," and the lieutenant-governor as "his honor;" and a similar privilege pertains to the same offices in a few other states of the American Union. All other officials have the sanction of custom or courtesy only for the titles of honor by which they are addressed. Judges are invariably addressed upon the bench as "your honor," and custom has given the same title to the mayors of cities and a few other officials. Judges, members of congress, and in some states the members of the upper house of the legislature, are frequently styled "honorable," although the practice is by no means universal; and the president of the United States receives the courtesy title of "his excellency." The clergy are universally addressed as "reverend," and those having episcopal functions adopt the prefix of "very" or "right." (See ESQUIRE.)

TITMOUSE, the popular name of the parina, a sub-family of the warblers, found in all parts of the world except South America. The bill is short, strong, rather conical and straight, with the tip entire; nostrils generally concealed by the frontal plumes; wings moderate and pointed, with the first 3 quills graduated; tail more or less long, rounded and even; tarsi long, slender, and scaled in front; inner toe shortest; claws strong and curved. In the typical genus parus (Linn.) the bill is somewhat curved, not very stout; the head is not crested; the 4th and 5th quills are equal and longest; the crown and throat generally black. There are more than 50 species described in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, small, sprightly, and bold birds, and many of them with beautiful colors; they frequent woods and gardens, flitting from branch to branch, running rapidly up and down the limbs, and hanging in various attitudes from the twigs in searching for food, which consists of insects, larvæ, grains, and seeds; they will also eat flesh and carrion, and attack young

and sickly birds, which they kill by strokes of the bill; they approach farm houses in severe weather, and in the spring sometimes do considerable damage in orchards by picking open the buds in search of insects. The nests are made in the forks of bushes and trees, of moss, grasses, and wool, lined with hair and feathers; many of the best known species deposit their eggs in holes of decayed trees, left by the woodpeckers or made by themselves; the eggs are 6 to 12; it is said that some of the foreign longtailed species construct an oval nest with 2 opposite orifices for ingress and egress through which the tail projects; this is denied by Macgillivray. In warm climates they seem to prefer mountainous districts, some of the Indian species being found at an elevation of more than 7,000 feet; even in temperate zones many raise 2 broods in a year, laying many eggs, but fewer for the 2d brood; the young are fed chiefly on caterpillars, and hence these birds are among the farmer's best friends.-The largest of the well known American species is the tufted titmouse (lophophanes bicolor, Bonap.), 6 inches long and about 10 in alar extent; the crown has a conspicuous crest, the bill is conical with the upper and lower outlines convex, wings graduated with the first quill very short, and the tail moderately long and rounded. The color above is ashy black; frontal band black; under parts uniform whitish, sides brownish chestnut; sides of head nearly white, and bill black. It is found throughout eastern North America to the Missouri, appearing in the middle states about May 1, in the summer inhabiting the forests, in flocks or families of 8 or 10, in company with the nuthatch and downy woodpecker; the flight is short, with jerks of the body and tail; the note is a kind of pleasing whistle; it is fond of nuts, which it holds in the claws, breaking the shell with the beak; like most others of the genus, it attacks smaller birds; the eggs are 6 or 8, white with a few red spots at the larger end, and are laid in holes of decayed trees.-In the genus parus (Linn.) belongs the black-capped titmouse or chickadee (P. atricapillus, Linn.), 5 inches long and 7 in extent of wings; the back is brownish ashy, top of head and throat black, sides of head white; below whitish tinged with brownish on the sides; outer tail feathers, some of the primaries, and secondaries margined with white; wings brown. It is found in eastern North America along the Atlantic border, according to Audubon rarely met with S. of Maryland and Kentucky; it is very common in the fur countries and as far N. as lat. 65°. It is hardy, restless, industrious, and frugal, breeding in the most retired parts of the forest, being at this time very shy, but familiarly approaching houses in winter; when the pathless woods are covered with snow and the cold is 20° below zero, this little bird cheers the woodcutter and the traveller with its musical "chick-a-dee-dee," grateful for any crumbs left from their dinner; it is truly omnivorous,

and often attacks young birds; the nest is generally in a hole made by a woodpecker or by itself, not more than 10 feet from the ground, purse-shaped, and lined with soft hairs; the eggs are 6 to 8, by inch, white with light reddish dots and marks; 2 broods are raised in a year; the flight is short, with a murmuring sound. Species resembling this occur in the southern and western states, Mexico, and on the Pacific coast. The Hudson's bay titmouse (P. Hudsonicus, Forst.) is 5 inches long and 7 in alar extent; yellowish olive brown above, purest on head; chin and throat dark sooty brown; sides of head and lower parts white; sides of body and anal region light chestnut; no white on wings or tail, the last nearly even. It breeds from Labrador to Maine, rarely coming S. of the latter, and going further N. than any other species.-The largest of the European species is the great titmouse or tit (P. major, Linn.), called also ox-eye and black-cap in England, and la charbonnière in France; it is less than 6 inches long, with the head, fore part of neck, transverse band on sides, and longitudinal one on breast and abdomen, black; cheeks white, back yellowish green, and breast and sides yellow; wings and tail grayish. It is not a sociable bird; its usual note is a loud cheep followed by a harsh chatter, in the spring resembling the filing of a saw and heard to a great distance; it imitates the notes of other birds, and in its habits and food shows an alliance to the jays; in its search for flies it visits the cottage tops and pulls the straw from the thatch; it is found from Norway and Sweden to the southern boundaries of Europe. The blue tit (P. cæruleus, Linn.) is 4 inches long and 7 in alar extent, with the upper part of the head light blue and encircled with white; band round neck, and before and behind eyes, duller blue; cheeks white, back light yellowish green, under parts pale grayish yellow, and middle of breast dull blue. This is the handsomest and most familiar species; in autumn it quits the woods and thickets and visits the gardens and orchards, incessantly hopping about among the branches, pert and irritable; it is called tomtit, blue-cap, blue-bonnet, and billy-biter in various parts of England. This bird, among others, has been frequently watched in Great Britain while rearing the young, and the parents have been found to carry to the nest on an average a grub every 2 minutes during the day, beside supplying their own wants. It is a permanent resident in Great Britain; it is very bold when sitting, hissing like a snake or angry kitten, and severely biting the hand brought near the nest. The crested tit (P. cristatus, Kaup) is a beautiful bird, having a crest on the crown like the American tufted species; it is 4 inches long and 8 in alar extent, the feathers of the head black with white margins; upper parts gray tinged with yellowish brown; it is found in the pine and juniper regions of Europe. The long-tailed tit (mecistura caudata, Leach) is about 6 inches long and 64 in ex