tent of wings; the plumage is very soft, the bill black and much concealed by the feathers at the base, whence it is called mufflin; other names are bottle tomtit and poke pudding; head, throat, and breast white; broad band over eyes, nape, and back black; scapulars reddish; 3 lateral tail feathers on each side externally white, the rest black; the tail is twice as long as in any other European species, and the bill very short and convex; the nest is made on bushes and trees. In the genus paroides (Koch) the bill is more slender and nearly straight; the species are found in the neighborhood of water, among the reeds on the borders of rivers, lakes, and marshes, the nest intertwined beyond the reach of the water; the food consists chiefly of insects and seeds; in the bearded tit (P. biarmicus, Koch) of Europe, 6 inches long, the head and neck are bluish gray, the upper parts, abdomen, and sides yellowish brown, and there is a tuft of pendent feathers between the bill and eyes; the gizzard is very muscular, unlike the true tits, on which account some have placed it among conirostral birds; mollusks like succinea and pupa are swallowed whole, but the shells are soon broken up by the stomach. The hanging tit (P. pendulinus, Koch), 4 inches long, is reddish gray above, with wings and tail blackish, and lower parts rosy white; it is found in eastern and northern Europe, and constructs very artistically a nest woven of the fibres of bark and the cotton of the seeds of willows, fastened to a reed or thin branch and surrounded by closely tangled bushes, which protect it from the wind and hide it from view.-A species from Java (psaltria exilis, Temm.) is but a little over 8 inches long. TITTMANN, JOHANN AUGUST, a German theologian, born at Langensalza, near Gotha, Aug. 1, 1773, died in Leipsic, Dec. 31, 1831. He studied theology and philosophy at the universities of Wittenberg (where his father was professor) and Leipsic. In 1796 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy, and in 1800 extraordinary and in 1805 ordinary professor of theology at Leipsic. The latter position he retained until his death. He is the author of numerous theological works, of which the most important are a "Cyclopædia of Theological Science" (Leipsic, 1798), and a "History of The ology and Religion in the Protestant Church during the second half of the 18th Century" (Breslau, 1805). He also edited the symbolical books of the Lutheran church (Libri Symbolici, Leipsic, 1817) and the Greek New Testament (Leipsic, 1824). At the congress of Vienna he vainly advocated the reorganization of the Corpus Evangelicorum, a supreme tribunal for the Protestant churches of Germany. TITUS, a N. E. co. of Texas, bounded N. by Sulphur fork of Red river, S. by Big Cypress bayou, and intersected by White Oak bayou; area, 1,100 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 9,648, of whom 2,438 were slaves. The surface is generally level and the soil fertile. The produc tions in 1850 were 66,000 bushels of Indian corn, 8,088 of oats, 292 bales of cotton, and 39,175 lbs. of butter. There were 4 churches, and 50 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Mount Pleasant. TITUS (TITUS FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS), a Roman emperor, born Dec. 30, A. D. 40, died near Reate in the Sabine country, Sept. 13, 81. He was the son and successor of Vespasian, and was educated in the imperial household with Britannicus, the son of Claudius, who was poisoned by Nero; and it is said that the future emperor tasted some of the same deadly potion and became sick in consequence. While still young he served as military tribune in Britain and Germany, and subsequently became quæstor. During the Jewish war he had command of a legion under his father, captured the cities of Tarichæa, Gamala, and other places, and also fell in love with Berenice, the daughter of Herod Agrippa. By reconciling his father and Mucianus, the governor of Syria, he was of invaluable service in contributing to the elevation of the former to the throne. When Vespasian went to Rome, he left Titus to end the Jewish war, which he accomplished on Sept. 8, 70, by the capture of Jerusalem and the massacre and dispersion of its inhabitants. Subsequently he returned to Rome by the order of his father, and proved by his prompt obedience that the rumors which charged him with aiming at the throne were unfounded. In that city he had the honor of a triumph along with his father for their common success in the Jewish war, and during the remaining years of the reign of Vespasian was employed in discharging the highest functions of state. He drew up the imperial edicts, and was permitted to write letters in the emperor's name. At the same time it was feared that his elevation to power would destroy the natural goodness of his character, as he began to be fond of the pleasures of the table and of indulging his licentious passions. After the capture of Jerusalem, Berenice had followed him to Rome, and at one time it was said that Titus wished to make her his wife; but out of deference to the feelings of his subjects, she was finally sent away from the city. He ascended the throne in 79, and by his conduct soon dispelled the illfounded impression that he would be another Nero. His reign was marked by a succession of terrible calamities, the injuries inflicted by which he made earnest efforts to repair. The towns of Herculaneum, Stabiæ, and Pompeii were destroyed in that eruption of Vesuvius in which the elder Pliny lost his life; in 80 a great fire broke out in Rome which lasted 3 days, and consumed a large number of houses and many public edifices, among which were the capitol, the library of Augustus, and the theatre of Pompey; and moreover a plague began to ravage the city, of which thousands died daily. Titus almost exhausted his finances in order to relieve his unfortunate subjects, repaired many aqueducts, made a road from Rome to Ariminum (the modern Rimini), completed the Colosseum, which his father had begun, and also constructed the baths called the baths of Titus. In dedicating these two last, he gave magnificent entertainments, which continued 100 days, on one of which 5,000 wild beasts were said to have been set fighting in the new amphitheatre. His reign was throughout marked by great clemency, checking all prosecutions of lasa majestas, and punishing all informers. He did not even inflict the punishment of death upon those who conspired against his life, and pardoned his brother Domitian, who several times had attempted to get rid of him in order that he himself might ascend the throne. In 80 and 81 Agricola completed the subjugation of Britain. Meanwhile the health of Titus declined, and going to the Sabine country, he expired in the same villa in which his father had died. There were suspicions that Domitian, who succeeded him, was instrumental in procuring his death. Beside the letters and edicts of his composition, Titus is said to have written Greek poems and tragedies. The chief authorities for his life are Suetonius, Dion Cassius, and Tacitus. TITUS, a companion and fellow laborer of the apostle Paul. He was a Greek, but we know not from what country. He was one of those persons sent from Antioch to Jerusalem to consult the apostles, and it was not judged necessary that he should be circumcised. He accompanied the apostle on his journey to Jerusalem, was his agent at Corinth and in Dalmatia, and was left behind with ecclesiastical commissions upon the island of Crete. According to Eusebius, Jerome, Theodoret, and the ecclesiastical tradition in general, he was the first bishop of Crete. TITUS, EPISTLE TO, a canonical book of the New Testament, addressed by the apostle Paul to his disciple Titus. This and the two epistles to Timothy form the pastoral letters of the apostle, all of which have so many points in common that their authenticity has been generally attacked and defended simultaneously. (See TIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO.) The date of the Epistle to Titus has been the subject of much dispute, some fixing it as early as A. D. 52, others as late as 65, others at various intermediate years. The apostle furnishes Titus, whom he had left behind in Crete, with rules of conduct, especially in regard to the appointment of elders (i. 5-9), and warns him against certain false teachers (i., 10-16). He then describes the virtues becoming all classes, ages, and both sexes (ch. ii.), and inculcates obedience to civil rulers, moderation, gentleness, and avoidance of all idle speculations (ch. iii.). TIVOLI (anc. Tibur), a town of central Italy, Papal States, situated on the left bank of the Teverone (anc. Anio), on the slope of Monte Ripoli, at an elevation of 850 feet above the sea, 18 m. E. N. E. from Rome; pop. 6,323. The streets are steep and narrow, and the houses generally indifferently built. It has a handsome cathedral and several churches. The place is very rich in remains of antiquity. The temple of the Tiburtine sibyl is a beautiful circular building surrounded with Corinthian columns, and adjoining it is the temple of Vesta, now used as a Christian church. There are also remains of baths, bridges, several villas, and of a vast palace commenced by Hadrian. The climate is not considered good, and a great amount of crime prevails among the inhabitants. The manufactures and trade are of little importance. The Teverone forms a series of cascades in the neighborhood of the town, which are a great source of attraction.-Tibur is said to have been founded by the Siculi long anterior to the building of Rome, and to have been afterward colonized by Theban Greeks before the Trojan war. It possessed a small territory, with Empulum, Sassula, and other towns. It is mentioned by Pliny as one of the Sabine towns. The Tiburtines and Romans were at enmity, and the former aided the Gauls in their invasion of Rome in 361 B. C. This brought on a war between them which lasted several years, until in 348 the Tiburtines submitted. A few years later they joined the Latin league against Rome, and after its overthrow united with the Prænestini and Veliterni; but in 335 the consul L. Furius Camillus put them to rout under the walls of Pedum, and Tibur was treated with great severity, but remained nominally independent and a place of asylum for Roman fugitives till the end of the republic. Here Syphax died and Zenobia passed her captivity. The temple of Hercules, for whose worship Tibur was famous, was, excepting that of Fortune at Præneste, the most remarkable in the neighborhood of Rome. Many Romans had magnificent villas here in the later period of the republic and under the empire. TLASCALA, or TLAXCALA (Aztec, "land of bread"), a territory of Mexico, bounded W. by the state of Mexico, and on all other sides by that of Puebla; area, 1,918 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 90,158. It received its name from its great fertility in maize.-TLASCALA, the capital, is situated between two mountains on the Rio Papagallo, 10 m. N. from the city of Puebla, and 70 m. E. by S. from Mexico; pop. in 1850, 3,463. It has a cathedral, a state house, an old bishop's palace, and a few other buildings of good architecture, among which is the oldest Franciscan convent in Mexico. In the surrounding country remains of the old Mexican architecture and fortifications still exist.-The Tlascalans belonged to the same family as the Aztecs, and formed at the time of the invasion of Cortes a powerful little republic, in which something like the feudal system was established. Although its territorial limits amounted only to 10 leagues in length by 15 in breadth, it successfully resisted all efforts of surrounding tribes and even of the Mexican monarchy for its subjugation. In 1519 the Tlascalans at first resisted the march of Cortes, but, after having been defeated in several engagements, formed an alliance with him, and received from him a kind of independent existence under Spanish rule, the cacique being immediately subject to the governor of New Spain. The city is said to have numbered at the time of the invasion about 20,000 families, and Sept. 23, the day of Cortes's entrance, is still celebrated by the inhabitants as a day of jubilee. After the revolution Tlascala, being too small to form an independent state, was made a territory. TLEMOEN, or TREMOEN, a town in Algeria, province of Oran, situated on elevated ground 68 m. S. W. from Oran; pop. about 10,000. It is an ancient place, with narrow streets, and brick or stone houses seldom more than one story high. The citadel is a very large building, and there are many interesting remains of Roman origin. Iron, morocco leather, carpets, and woollen, linen, and cotton goods are manufactured. A considerable trade is carried on with Morocco and the desert. Tlemcen was once the capital of a kingdom and a place of importance; but the inhabitants having revolted in 1670, the dey of Algiers laid it in ruins. The French took possession of it in 1836, but, in consequence of a treaty between them and Abd el Kader, they evacuated it the following year. It was again taken by them in 1841. TOAD, the common name of a well known family of anourous or tailless batrachians, the general character and anatomy of which have been described under FROG, and AMPHIBIA. The bufonida, which comprise the common toads, have a well developed tongue, jaws rather sharp at the edge but without teeth, thick and heavy body, and skin more or less covered with glandular warts which secrete an acrid fluid; the hind legs are but little longer than the anterior, so that they cannot make the long leaps of the frogs. According to Agassiz, the toads should rank higher than the frogs, from their more terrestrial habits; the embryonic web, which still unites the fingers of the frog, disappears in the toad, and the cutaneous glands of the skin do not exist in frogs. Toads, like frogs, absorb moisture by the skin, which is cast at intervals, coming off in lateral halves which are swallowed by the animal at a gulp; the skin feels hard to the touch, and, according to Mr. Rainey ("Microscopic Journal," 1855), contains a layer of earthy matter under the dermis effervescing with acids, considered by him the analogue of what becomes a continuous hard dermal skeleton in the testudinata. Like frogs, they have also a large sac resembling a bladder, often found filled with pure water, in no way connected with the kidneys, but formed of the allantois, serving as a reservoir of water and aiding in respiration, its walls being highly vascular. The acrid fluid of the skin may be pressed out from two eminences like split beans just behind the head; it comes forth in a jet, and will make the eyes smart severely if it touch them. The hyoid bone being absent, the root of the tongue is attached anteriorly in the concavity formed by the branches of the lower jaw, the free extremity pointing backward when at rest; it is capable of protrusion in a reversed position so rapidly that the eye cannot follow it. From their ugly form and disgusting appearance they have always been despised and persecuted, though they are really not only inoffensive but of great service to man in destroying noxious insects and larvæ; they usually lie hid during the day, but come out at dusk in woods, fields, and gardens, in search of food, and are not unfrequently found in cellars and dark places about houses; their metamorphoses are of the same character as those described under FROG; they live out of the water except during the breeding season in March or April; during winter they remain torpid in holes and crevices, under stones, stumps, &c.; they lay a great number of eggs united into long strings, enclosed in a gelatinous substance, generally 2, which the male draws out with his hind feet. The species are less numerous than in the terrestrial and tree frogs; they are found in both hemispheres, but unequally distributed, being most abundant in America, and least so in Europe, which has not a single species peculiar to it, both the common toad and the natterjack occurring also in Africa and Asia; they are more abundant in Asia than in Africa, and only one is described in Australia; Duméril and Bibron recognize only 35 species of bufonida.-In the genus bufo (Laur.) the tongue is oblong, free posteriorly; anterior limbs 4-toed and free, the posterior 5-toed and semi-palmated; the tuberosity behind each eye, above the tympanum, porous and cushion-shaped; head obtuse in front, the upper jaw descending directly downward so that the intermaxillaries do not project in front of the cranium. The common European toad or paddock (B. vulgaris, Laur.), le crapaud of the French, is 3 to 3 inches long, of a lurid brownish gray, with reddish brown tubercles and a blackish stripe externally or along the glands on the sides of the head; the iris red or golden; the body thick and much inflated. It feeds on insects and worms of all kinds, but will touch only a living and a moving prey; it remains motionless, with eyes fixed on its intended victim till it comes within reach of its tongue, which is darted out with extreme rapidity and accuracy; when it seizes a worm, it pushes it into the mouth with the fore feet till all disappears, and the animal is swallowed whole. Its motions are by a kind of crawl; when alarmed it stops and swells out the body, and sometimes makes short and awkward leaps. The eggs are in a double series, 3 or 4 feet long and of an inch thick, and are laid in the spring 2 or 3 weeks later than those of the frog, the young being fully developed by the last of summer; they are smaller and blacker in all their stages than the young of the frog. Small toads of this and the common North American species are often found in places where they could not have gone through the usual stages of tadpole existence, as in gardens and cellars where they could neither have had access to water nor have been introduced from without; the gills must have disappeared shortly after birth, if they ever existed; they appear to have the power of prematurely assuming the functional conditions of terrestrial animals when circumstances demand it; a similar rapid metamorphosis is observed as a rule in the Surinam toad mentioned below. For details on this subject, see "Annals and Magazine of Natural History," vol. xi. (London, 1853). The toad has been regarded as venomous in almost all countries and ages, its saliva, bite, cutaneous and watery secretion, and even its breath and glance, being supposed to be poisonous and more or less maleficent; the acrid exudation from the skin is sufficient to produce a painful irritation on a tender skin or a wounded mucous membrane; though it will make a dog quickly drop a toad from its mouth, it has no effect when introduced into the circulation; it not only serves thus for the protection of the animal, but is probably partly excrementitious, and assists the lungs in freeing the blood of carbon. Space will not permit more than an allusion here to the strange stories and superstitions connected with the toad; venomous and malicious as it was believed to be by the ancients, "the precious jewel in its head" was considered its redeeming quality; this jewel was not its bright and beautiful eyes, as hinted at by Shakespeare, but the bufonite or toadstone, supposed to possess wonderful medical and magical powers, and now known to be a palatal tooth of the fossil ganoid fish pycnodus. It has always been made a favorite companion for sorcerers and witches, and an ever present article in their magic compounds; it was the first ingredient thrown into the witches' caldron in "Macbeth." The toad has been known to live 35 or 40 years, and it is thought to attain a considerably greater age; it has been so far domesticated as to come and feed from its master's hand, and seems capable of a real attachment to man. From their well known fondness for insects, toads make excellent traps for the entomologist, who may thus procure rare and otherwise unattainable beetles and nocturnal species, which they can be made to disgorge without difficulty; intelligent gardeners often put them into hot-houses to destroy ants and other insects and larvæ injurious to choice plants. Like many other reptiles, the toad can live a considerable time without food and with a very small supply of air; but the alleged instances of their having been found imbedded in solid stone or the heart of a tree, with no possible communication with the external world, have no doubt arisen from errors of observation; though much remains unexplained about the facts upon which this popular belief is based, and though toads have been taken from places where it seemed impossible that they could have obtained food, air, or moisture, it cannot be admitted that they have been hermetically sealed; with Mr. Thomas Bell it may be said: "To believe that a toad, enclosed within a mass of clay, or other similar substance, shall exist wholly without air or food for hundreds of years, and at length be liberated alive and capable of crawling, on the breaking up of the matrix now become a solid rock, is certainly a demand upon our credulity which few would be ready to answer." Dr. Buckland's experiments in 1825, in connection with the so called antediluvian toads, show that these animals cannot usually survive a long time, not even a year, deprived of air and food; see "Curiosities of Natural History," by his son Francis T. Buckland, 1st series, pp. 74-86 (London, 1859).-The other European species is the natterjack, mephitic, or green toad (B. calamita, Laur.); it is smaller, not 3 inches long, of a light yellowish brown color clouded with dull olive, and with a bright yellow stripe along the middle of the back; under parts yellowish with black spots, and the legs with black bands; iris yellowish green; it is less tumid and the eyes more prominent; the hind legs are shorter and the toes less palmated, indicating more terrestrial habits; it is less common, more active, and frequents drier places; it is found throughout Europe, and in Asia and N. Africa.-The common American toad (B. Americanus, Le Conte) is 2 to 3 inches long, with short, thick, and bloated warty body; anterior limbs large, posterior short with a spade-like process at root of 1st toe, described as a rudimentary 6th toe by some writers; the jaws entire, and the eyes large and brilliant. It has a longitudinal line of dirty white from the occiput to the vent, on each side several spots of various colors, size, and shape, and a row of black and whitish ones extending to the hind legs; lower parts granulated and dirty yellowish white; anterior limbs dusky above with small white spots, the posterior ashy with blotches and bands of black. The head is smaller than in the European toad, the body less bloated, and the movements more active, yet they are representative species. In the breeding season toads and frogs do not generally assemble in the same pond; this species has been found on sandy shores overgrown with beach grass and in salt marshes; it is met with from Maine and Canada to the Mississippi valley; its note is a prolonged trill, continued by day and night, not unpleasant when the concert is at a considerable distance; it has been rendered so tame as to take flies from the hand. The Carolina toad (B. lentiginosus, Shaw) is 3 inches long, warty above, dusky brown with a tinge of yellow; below granulated, dirty yellowish white; head and mouth very large; it is timid and gentle, and fond of ants and fireflies; the males have a large gular sac, and are very noisy in the breeding season; it is found from S. Virginia to Florida, and along the gulf of Mexico. The marine toad of South America (B. marinus, Gray) is the largest of the family, 8 to 10 inches long without the legs; it is ashy gray, irregularly spotted with brownish, and with large warts.-There are several toad-like batrachians, generally arranged by modern herpetologists in the frog family, of which two may be mentioned here. The accoucheur toad (B. obstetricans, Laur.; genus alytes, Wagler) is common in the vicinity of Paris, in France, and in S. Germany; the males not only assist the females in the exclusion of the eggs (which are yellow), but afterward attach them to their hind legs by small pedicles; the young are developed under ground in the femoral region until they reach the tadpole state, when the males enter the water and the larvæ escape. In the genus scaphiopus (Holbrook) the body is short and thick, the head short, with teeth in the upper jaw and palate, and the tympanum distinct; posterior limbs short and stout, the leg shorter than the thigh, and a horny spade-like process in the place of a 6th toe; though generally ranked with the frog family, the form is toadlike; eyes large and prominent, with the iris golden and divided into 4 parts by 2 black lines; the anterior limbs long. The only species, S. solitarius (Holbr.), is between 2 and 3 inches long, olive and somewhat warty on the back, with 2 lines of pale yellow from the orbits to the vent; beneath yellowish white. It resembles the toads in its nocturnal, terrestrial, and subterranean habits, living in holes dug by itself, and seizing insects which fall in; its motions are sluggish, and it appears in the evening or after long continued rains; the males have a vocal sac under the throat; it is found from Massachusetts to Georgia. It is solitary except during the breeding season in early spring, when it takes to the water in considerable numbers; the eggs are laid from the last of April to the middle of July, are smaller and darker than in the common toad, and placed commonly around a spear of grass; as in the frogs and toads, they are frequently destroyed by a parasitic fungus. Swimming is performed by alternate strokes, as in the turtles, and their excavations are made by pushing out the hind feet laterally, by which they rapidly get under ground, the body being thrust backward as fast as the hole is formed; the pelvis is very loosely articulated to the sacrum, and moves freely backward and forward upon it. The family pipida constitute the group of phrynaglosses, so named from having no tongue, as distinguished from the phaneroglosses, in which this organ exists; the tympanum is concealed, and its cavity communicates with the mouth by a single opening in the middle of the posterior part of the palate; the head is triangular, and the small eyes are low and near the mouth; the body is broad and thick, the hind legs very powerful and large, and the toes united by a complete and full web. The family contains only 2 genera, pipa (Laur.) and dactylethra (Cuv.), each with a single species. In pipa there are no teeth, and the last joint of the slender anterior toes is divided into 4 VOL. XV.-33 parts. In dactylethra the upper jaw has small pointed teeth, the tongue is at the back of the mouth, and some of the hind toes have (alone among batrachians) hoof-like claws; the anterior legs are small and slender; the D. Capensis (Cuv.) is found at the Cape of Good Hope and on the Mozambique coast. The Surinam toad (P. Americana, Laur.) has a remarkable and anomalous mode of reproduction; the eggs do not escape into the water, but are received by the male, who deposits them on the back of the female and there impregnates them (some authors say that impregnation takes place before the deposition of the eggs on the back of the female); the skin becomes thickened between them, rises and partly invests each egg in a sac or pouch, covered by a thin operculum of dried gelatinous matter, probably a portion of that which originally surrounded the egg; the young go through the usual changes in the dorsal pouches, and emerge perfect toads; the yolk is of large size; the external branchia disappear at a very early period; the tail is fully formed in the embryo, but is absorbed before it leaves the egg; the embryo at this stage is larger than the original egg, so that it must have absorbed something from the pouch of the parent. This animal is commonly found in the dark corners of houses in Guiana and Surinam, and, though exceedingly disgusting in appearance, is said to be eaten by the natives. TOAD FISH, a spiny-rayed fish of the lophius family, and genus batrachus (Bloch.), so named from its large head, wide gape, usually naked skin, and disgusting appearance; it is also called frog fish and oyster fish. The head is flattened and wider than the body; teeth conical, small and crowded on the intermaxillaries, larger on the lower jaw, palate, and vomer; operculum small and spiny; head, lips, and cheeks provided with numerous fleshy ap pendages; lower jaw the longest; 1st dorsal short, with 3 spinous rays almost concealed in the skin; 2d dorsal and anal low, soft, and long; ventrals under the throat, narrow, with 3 rays; pectorals on short arms of 5 carpal bones; 4th branchial arch without gills; body generally scaleless; no pyloric cæca; air bladder deeply forked anteriorly, attached to the vertebræ by slender ligaments, and muscular on the sides. They hide in the sand and mud of salt water, and occur in both hemispheres, preying on fish. There are more than a dozen species, of which one of the best known is the grunting toad fish (B. grunniens, Bloch), found in the seas of the East Indies; the skin is naked, smooth, soft and spongy; the head and jaws with numerous cutaneous appendages; the color is brownish above, marbled with darker, below white, fins white with brown bands; it is 8 to 13 inches long, and is said to be eaten at Bombay; it received its specific name from its making a grunting noise like a pig, from the expulsion of air by the muscular air bladder through the mouth.-The common American toad fish (B. tau, De Kay) is much like the |