governments, as France, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, and Austria, make it a monopoly, either wholly managing its manufacture and sale, or allowing individuals to import and sell under heavy imposts and restrictions. In England the customs duty on all raw tobacco is 38. (72 cts.) per lb. and 5 per cent. extra, making 33. 13d. or 75 cts. On snuff the duty is 68. 34d. per lb., and on cigars and manufactured tobacco 98. 4d. Notwithstanding this enormous tax, which on the raw tobacco amounts to 3 to 7 times the original cost of the article, the consumption is so great, that in the years 1857, 1858, and 1859 the revenue derived from this source amounted respectively to £5,253,431, £5,454,214, and £5,573,463; and the whole amount consumed in that country has been given at 29,737,561 lbs. per annum. The chief portion of the consumption is of shag or common roll tobacco, and the common kinds of snuff. In one of the principal London factories the daily production of cigars is only about 60 lbs., while that of cut tobacco is 2,000 lbs. The high cost of tobacco has led in England to extensive adulterations with a great variety of other leaves and other substances, the presence of which can generally be detected by the microscope. The following are among the articles most used: leaves of the rhubarb, dock, burdock, coltsfoot, beech, plantain, oak, and elm; peat earth, bran, saw dust, malt rootlets, meal of barley, oats, beans and peas, potato starch, and chicory leaves steeped in tar oil. The possession of any of these or of various other specified substances by a tobacco manufacturer renders him liable to a fine of £200. A work on "Tobacco and its Adulterations" was published in London in 1858, prepared by Henry P. Prescott, of the inland revenue department. The subject is also treated by Dr. Hassall in his "Adulterations Detected."-The production of tobacco in the several states and territories for the years named is given as follows in the census returns:

The importations of tobacco into the United States are chiefly from Cuba, and of these are of cigars, the value of which is from $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 annually.-Among the publications upon tobacco, beside that of Prescott already referred to, may be named the treatise by Joubert, Nouveau manuel du fabricant de tabac (Paris, 1844); "The Uses and Abuses of Tobacco," by John Lizars, professor of surgery (Edinburgh; reprinted, Philadelphia, 1859); and "Tobacco, its History and Associations," by F. W. Fairholt (London, 1859). TOBACCO PIPE. See PIPE.

TOBAGO, an island of the Windward group of the British West Indies, the N. point of which is in lat. 11° 25′ N., long. 60° 32′ W., 32 m. long by 12 broad; area, 97 sq. m.; pop. 13,027. Scarborough, on the S. W. side of the island, is the chief town. There are several good harbors on the N. side for vessels of about 150 tons, and a few also on the opposite side of the island. Tobago is a mass of rocks which rises abruptly on the N. E. side and descends toward the S. W., the most elevated part of which is about 900 feet above the sea. There

are several small valleys, well watered by numerous streams. The productions consist of sugar, molasses, and rum. Tobago is not subject to hurricanes. It has a lieutenant-governor and local legislature. It was discovered by Columbus in 1496, and was ceded by France to Great Britain in 1763.

TOBIT, a book of the Old Testament in the Roman Catholic canon, but regarded as apocryphal by Jews and Protestants. It contains the history of a pious Jew of the tribe of Naphtali, living in exile at Nineveh. Being purveyor to the court of King Shalmaneser, he became wealthy; but under Sennacherib he lost his position and his property, because he had buried Jews who had been executed. Having returned to Nineveh after the death of Sennacherib, he became blind; but he was cured by a fish which his son Tobias had brought home from a journey undertaken in company with the angel

Raphael. The Greek text and the Latin translation of Jerome, which was made from a Chaldaic text, considerably differ. The author is supposed to have been a Jew of Palestine, but his age cannot be ascertained. Among the best commentaries on the book are those of Fritzsche (Leipsic, 1853), Sengelmann (Hamburg, 1859), and Reusch (Freiburg, 1857). TOBOLSK, a government of Western Siberia, bounded N. by the Arctic ocean, E. by Yeniseisk and Tomsk, S. by the Kirgheez territory, and W. by Archangel, Perm, and Orenburg; area, 557,516 sq. m.; pop. in 1356, 1,017,633. The sea coast is indented by several deep bays, and for about 250 m. inland the country is barren and sterile. To the W. Tobolsk is separated from Archangel by the Ural mountains. In the centre of the government there are forests of great extent containing much fine timber, while toward the S. the land affords good natural pasturage and is well suited for cultivation, but is interspersed with sterile steppes. The greater part of the government is drained by the Obi and its tributaries, the Irtish, Ishim, Tobol, and others. There are many extensive lakes, in which, as well as the rivers, fish are very abundant. Different kinds of wild animals are numerous, more particularly those yielding valuable furs, and a large portion of the population are employed in hunting. The inhabitants are a mixture of Ostiaks, Samoyedes, Tunguses, and Russians, many of the last named being exiles, or descended from exiles. The mineral resources of the province have been but partially developed. Metals, glass, soap, and potash are manufactured. A large transit trade is carried on between the countries lying to the W., China, Bokhara, and Tartary. The principal towns, beside the capital, are Obdorsk, near the mouth of the Obi, Petropavlovsk, on the Ishim, and Omsk, on the Irtish, formerly the capital of a government of the same name.TOBOLSK, the capital, is situated on the right bank of the Irtish, at the confluence of the Tobol, in lat. 58° 12' N., long. 68° 20' E.; pop. about 20,000. Silk ribbons, reindeer and other skin dresses, soap, candles, and glass are manufactured; and the traffic between European Russia and China finds a centre here. Traders from Europe arrive with their goods in the spring, and in autumn their returning boats reach Tobolsk on their way to the W.; merchants from Tartary and Bokhara arrive about November and return home in spring.

TOCANTINS, a river of Brazil, formed by the Almas and Maranhão, which rise in the province of Goyaz and unite in lat. 14° S., long. 49° 15′ W. After a course of about 1,000 m., in a general northerly direction, it falls into the estuary of Para, about 80 m. S. W. from Para. The Araguay, which joins it about lat. 6° S., is the most important tributary; and although it loses its name, it has a longer course to the junction and a greater volume of water than the Tocantins. The affluents next in importance are the Paraman, the Ma

noel Alves Solobre, the Great Somno, and the Manoel Alves Septentrional, which join it from the E., and the Tucahunas and Teresa, from the W. The tide ascends about 300 m., and at its mouth the Tocantins is 8 m. wide.

TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS CHARLES HENRI CLEREL DE, a French publicist and statesman, born in Paris, July 29, 1805, died at Cannes, April 15, 1859. After being admitted to the bar at Paris, he was appointed a judge in Versailles in 1826, and was promoted in 1830. The next year he was sent, in conjunction with Gustave de Beaumont, on a mission to the United States, to examine the penitentiary system; and a full report of their observations was published under the title Du système pénitentiaire aux États-Unis (8vo., 1832; translated into English by Francis Lieber, 8vo., Philadelphia, 1833). De Tocqueville had made use of the opportunity to acquaint himself thoroughly with the political and social institutions of the country, and wrote a philosophical work entitled De la démocratie aux ÉtatsUnis (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1835), which was extensively read, and rewarded in 1836 by a prize by the French institute, and in 1837 by his nomination to the academy of moral and political sciences, and in 1841 to the French academy. Being elected in 1839 to the chamber of deputies, he sat there among the most moderate members of the opposition, was in 1840 the reporter of a committee upon slavery, advocated the establishment in France of the American penitentiary system, and, while always ready to join in the improvements proposed by the ministry, was energetic in his denunciations against electoral corruption. He was one of those who foreboded the revolution of February. A member of the constituent assembly, he strongly opposed socialistic doctrines, and voted with the majority against ultra-democratic measures. He was appointed by Gen. Cavaignac to represent France in the diplomatic conferences held in Brussels upon the Italian affairs. On June 3, 1849, he became minister of foreign affairs, and strongly supported the French expedition to Rome, but, dissatisfied with the policy of President Louis Bonaparte, resigned his office before the end of the year, and sat again among the opposition. On Dec. 2, 1851, he was one of the deputies who met in the hall of the 10th arrondissement, and was arrested and incarcerated, but released in a few days. He now retired to private life, resumed his historical pursuits, and in 1856 published L'ancien régime et la révolution (8vo.; translated into English by J. Bonner, 12mo., New York, 1856). His Euores et correspondance inédites have been published, with a biographical notice by his friend G. de Beaumont (2 vols. 8vo., 1860; English translation, 2 vols. 8vo., London and Boston, 1861). His "Democracy in America" was translated into English by Henry Reeve, with a preface and notes by John C. Spencer (8vo., 1838), and abridged by the latter under the

title of "American Institutions and their Influence," with notes (16mo., New York, 1856). TOD, JAMES, an English soldier and author, born in 1782, died in London, Nov. 17, 1835. He went to India in 1800 as a cadet in the East India company's service, and after the close of the Mahratta war was for many years employed in a survey of Rajpootana, of which country he finished in 1815 a magnificent topographical map. The result of his labors appeared in his "Annals of Rajast'han" (2 vols. 4to., London, 1829-32), containing an elaborate account of the geography, history, and antiquities of the country. Between 1817 and 1823 he held the position of political agent of Mewar and several other Rajpoot states. Subsequent to his return to England in 1823, he was chiefly occupied with literary pursuits, the most important of which, in addition to the work above mentioned, was the preparation of his "Travels in Western India," published posthumously (4to., London, 1839). At the time of his death he held the rank of lieutenant-colonel.

TODD. I. A S. W. co. of Ky., bordering on Tenn., and drained by Pond river and several large creeks; area, 350 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 11,575, of whom 4,849 were slaves. The surface is generally hilly and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 803,941 bushels of Indian corn, 203,027 of oats, and 3,739,685 lbs. of tobacco. There were 21 churches, and 409 pupils attending public schools. It is intersected by the Nashville and Kentucky railroad. Capital, Elkton. II. A central co. of Minn., bounded E. by the Mississippi, and N. by Crow Wing and Red Eye rivers; area, 1,464 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 430. The surface is generally level, interspersed with numerous small lakes, and the soil is productive. Fort Ripley is in this county.

TODD, ELI, M.D., an American physician, born in New Haven, Conn., about 1769, died in Hartford, Nov. 17, 1833. He was graduated at Yale college in 1787, studied medicine in New Haven, and commenced practice in Farmington, where he resided for nearly 30 years. In 1819 he removed to Hartford, and took an active and leading part in founding the insane retreat, one of the earliest hospitals for the insane exclusively, and the fifth hospital in which the insane were treated, in the United States; he presided over this institution till his death. Dr. Todd was the author of several professional monographs and some occasional addresses.

TODD, HENRY JOHN, an English clergyman and author, born in 1763, died at Settrington, Yorkshire, Dec. 24, 1845. He was educated at Oxford, and was successively a minor canon of Canterbury cathedral, vicar of Milton near Canterbury, rector of Allhallows, London, keeper of the manuscripts at Lambeth palace (1803), rector of Settrington (1820), prebendary, of York (1830), and archdeacon of Cleveland (1832). His publications comprise editions of the poetical works of Milton and Spenser, with notes and memoirs; "Illustrations of the Lives

and Writings of Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower" (8vo., 1810); an edition of Johnson's "Dictionary," with corrections and additions (4 vols. 4to., 1814); "A Letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury, concerning the Authorship of Icon Basilike" (8vo., 1825), which assigns the work to Bishop Gauden; and a life of Archbishop Cranmer (2 vols. 8vo., 1831), growing out of a controversy with Dr. Lingard and others. TODD, JOHN, D.D., an American clergyman and author, born in Rutland, Vt., Oct. 9, 1800. He was graduated at Yale college in 1822, spent 4 years at the Andover theological seminary, and was ordained to the ministry in the Congregational church at Groton in 1827. In 1833 he was settled over the Edwards church at Northampton, in 1836 was called to the pastorate of the first Congregational church in Philadelphia, and in 1842 became pastor of the first Congregational church in Pittsfield, Mass., which position he still retains. Dr. Todd was one of the founders of the Mount Holyoke female seminary, and has been for 10 years the president of the board of trustees of the young ladies' institute at Pittsfield. In 1845 he received the honorary degree of D.D. from Williams college. Few works by American authors have had so wide a circulation as some of those written by Dr. Todd. He has published "Lectures to Children" (2 vols. 16mo., Northampton), which has been translated into French, German, Greek, Dutch, and Tamil, and several times reprinted in Great Britain; "The Student's Manual" (12mo., Northampton), of which 150,000 copies had been sold in England in 1855, and two translations had been made in France; "The Sabbath School Teacher" (12mo.); "The Lost Sister of Wyoming" (18mo.); "The Bible Companion" (18mo.); "Great Cities, their Moral Influence," &c. (18mo.); "The Young Man" (16mo.); "Simple Sketches" (2 vols. 16mo.); "The Daughter at School" (12mo.); "Summer Gleanings" (12mo.); "Truth made Simple" (18mo.); "Stories on the Shorter Catechism" (2 vols. 16mo.); "The Angel of the Iceberg," &c. (16mo.); "Index Rerum" (4to.); “Question Books on the Life of Adam and Moses" (2 vols. 18mo.); and a great number of sermons, orations, and occasional pamphlets.

TODD, ROBERT BENTLEY, a British physician and physiologist, born in Ireland about the commencement of the present century. He received his education in Ireland, settled in London, and upon the opening of King's college there was appointed professor of physiology and physician of the hospital connected with its medical department, the latter of which offices he still holds. He has considerable reputation as a practitioner, but is best known as the author or editor of a number of important medical works, including the "Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology" (4 vols. 8vo., with supplement), published in conjunction with Dr. Grant; the "Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man” (2 vols. 8vo.), in conjunction with Dr. Bowman; "Anatomy of

the Brain, Spinal Cord," &c.; "Lectures on Paralysis and Brain Diseases;" and "Treatise on Gout and Rheumatism." His contributions to medical journals, and papers in the "MedicoChirurgical Transactions," are numerous. TODDY TREE. See PALM, vol. xii. p. 703. TODLEBEN, FRANCIS EDWARD, a Russian general of engineers, born in Mitau, Courland, May 8, 1818. At 14 years of age he entered the engineering school of St. Petersburg, and subsequently was commissioned a lieutenant in the grenadier corps of sappers. For a number of years he was employed by the bureau of engineering in theoretical studies connected with the attack and defence of fortified places, and between 1848 and 1851 he served in the Caucasus against Shamyl. In the latter year he was appointed aide-de-camp to Gen. Von Schilder, a distinguished officer of artillery, and as lieutenant-colonel of the engineers of the guard he participated in the campaign against the Turks on the Danube in 1853-4. In Aug. 1854, Prince Gortchakoff despatched him, as the best engineer officer under his command, to assist in the defence of Sebastopol, then threatened by the allied French and English forces. He was not intrusted with any important operations until the landing of the allies in the latter part of September; but from that time until the capture of the southern part of the city, in Sept. 1855, he exhibited engineering genius of the first order in the construction of earthworks which baffled every effort of the besiegers. He was severely wounded in the course of the siege, and in the latter part of 1855 was recalled to St. Petersburg, with the rank of aide-de-camp general, for the purpose of strengthening the defensive works at Nikolaiev and Cronstadt. He subsequently received the cross of St. George and other distinctions. He has not been in active service since the close of the Crimean campaign, nor has he fully recovered of his wound.

TODOS SANTOS (All Saints), a small town in a valley of the same name in the southern portion of the peninsula of Lower California, situated on the Todos Santos river, founded in the beginning of the 18th century by the Jesuits. The principal edifices belong to the mission, and consist of a church with a dome 125 feet high, and a convent and several buildings attached, which are surrounded by a wall 100 feet high and 15 feet thick. The foundations of the wall and of the church are of chiselled stone, but the remaining buildings are of adobes. Jesuit missionaries were sent to this place early in the 18th century from the college in Mexico, with full powers to colonize the peninsula. The mission after the expulsion of the Jesuits came into the hands of the Franciscans, by whom it is still controlled. The valley of Todos Santos is one of the most beautiful and fruitful in America. Cotton, rice, and sugar cane are abundant, coffee and cacao are cultivated, and the region also abounds in tropical fruits.

TODY, a diurnal, fissirostral bird of the roller family, sub-family todina, and genus_todus (Linn.). In this genus, which is peculiar to tropical America, the bill is elongated, very broad and flat, almost like 2 thin plates, the upper mandible usually obtuse at the end, the gape opening as far as the eyes, and the base surrounded by large bristles; nostrils near the base; wings short and rounded, the first 2 quills short and narrow, and the 4th the longest; tail short and rounded; tarsi moderately long and slender, and covered in front by a single scale; outer toe longer than inner, and both united to the middle by membrane; hind toe short, and claws small; margins of the bill finely serrated. They are robust little birds, resembling the kingfishers in form, but having longer tarsi and tail, and a very different bill; they feed chiefly on insects, captured on the trees or on the wing as by the flycatchers; they eat also worms and small reptiles, which they seek upon the ground; their plumage is gaudy, and their flight rapid. The nest is made upon the ground, in a hole dug for the purpose lined with grass and straw, and the eggs are 2 to 4; Prince Neuwied says they make a conical, bagshaped nest, of wool, with a narrow entrance on the side. The green tody (T. viridis, Linn.), very common in some of the West Indian islands, is about the size of a wren, bright grass green above, with the neck and throat red, breast whitish, and abdomen yellowish; it is usually seen singly, and is so stupid or fearless as often to be caught by the hand; it is bold and familiar, and apparently has no fear of man, in captivity seeking its food about an occupied room; it occasionally utters a low hissing note; when at rest it draws the head back, with the bill directed upward and the loose plumage puffed out, giving it a very stupid look; the nest is made in holes in banks dug to a depth of 6 to 12 inches.-These birds are represented in India and its archipelago by the allied family eurylaimina, which differ principally in having only the outer toe united to the middle by a web. These are of small size and beautiful colors, living in retired places, in marshy districts, and along the margins of lakes and rivers; they are usually seen in small flocks, feeding on insects, worms, and vegetable substances. The nest is made of small twigs, suspended from branches of trees, usually overhanging the water; the eggs are two.

TOFANA. See AQUA TOFANA.

TOGA, the principal outer garment worn by the Romans. It differed in fashion somewhat at various periods, but had always a general semicircular form. One corner of the garment was placed upon the left shoulder, the remainder passed behind the body, over the right shoulder, and across the breast, the end being thrown back over the left shoulder. Behind the wearer, the garment reached very nearly to the feet. Togas were commonly made of wool. The toga worn by men, toga virilis, was entirely white; the toga pratexta, worn by

various officers in the state, and by children of both sexes, had a broad purple border. The toga is supposed to have been received from the Etruscans. Originally it was worn by both sexes, but upon the introduction of the stola that garment was assigned to the Roman women, and the toga became the peculiar distinction of Roman men. Its use was forbidden to exiles and foreigners. In war it was laid aside, and it was chiefly worn in Rome; hence togatus is opposed to miles and to rusticus.

TOISE, an old French measure of length, which contains 6 French feet, or 1.949040 metres. It is equivalent to 6.3945925 English feet.

TOKAT, or TOCAT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Sivas, situated on the YeshilIrmak (the ancient Iris), in lat. 40° 7' N., long. 36° 30′ E.; pop. 100,000. It has high limestone hills on 3 sides, and is commanded by 2 peaks which are almost perpendicular and consist of crystalline marble. The town has a mean appearance, the houses being built of mud or unburned bricks. The manufactures consist chiefly of copper articles and hardware, woollen, linen, silk, cotton goods, and carpets; and there are dyeing and calico printing establishments. A considerable trade is carried on in supplying the surrounding country with manufactured goods, as well as by caravans with all parts of Asia Minor; but the commercial importance of Tokat is not so great as in former times. The inhabitants are chiefly Turks, but there are a large number of Armenians and a few Greeks.

TOKAY, or TOKAJ, a town of Hungary, in the county of Zemplén, situated at the junction of the rivers Bodrog and Theiss, in lat. 48° 7' N., 114 m. E. N. E. from Pesth, and 25 m. S. S. W. from Sátoralja-Ujhely; pop. 5,712. The Theiss is crossed by a large wooden bridge, and the town contains several churches. Some trade is carried on, and several important fairs are held annually. Tokay is celebrated for the superior quality of the wine produced in its vicinity, especially in the Hegyalja, a chain of hills to the N. W. of the town, about 20 m. long, covered with vineyards. The grapes are collected with great care, being plucked one by one when they are ripe. The wine produced is of three descriptions: the essence, or that which runs from the grapes when put into a cask without artificial pressure; the second sort is obtained by applying a slight pressure; and the third by the same amount of pressure that is required in the manufacture of ordinary kinds of wine.

TÖKÖLYI, or TöKÖLI, IMRE. See HUNGARY, vol. ix. p. 359.

TOLAND, JOHN, a British author, born near Londonderry, in Ireland, Nov. 30, 1669 or 1670, died at Putney, near London, March 11, 1722. His parents were Roman Catholics, but he says that he was as zealous against that faith before he was 16 years old as he continued to be ever after. He studied 3 years at

the university of Glasgow, received the degree of M.A. at the university of Edinburgh in 1690, was sent by influential English dissenters for two years to the university of Leyden to prepare for the ministry, gained the friendship of Le Clerc and Leibnitz, and then went to Oxford, where he collected materials on various subjects in the Bodleian library, and made himself conspicuous as a free thinker. He published in London in 1696 a work entitled "Christianity not Mysterious," designed to show that no Christian doctrine is contrary to reason, or above it, or can properly be called a mystery. Among the answers which it called forth was the treatise on "Reason and Faith" (1697), by the Rev. John Norris of Sarum. He became acquainted with Locke, and in 1697 went to Dublin, where he was esteemed as a man of parts and learning, but alarmed the clergy and excited the clamor of parties, "not so much by his difference in opinion, as by his unreasonable way of discoursing, propagating, and maintaining it." His book was ordered by the parliament at Dublin to be burned by the common hangman. He returned to London, and, after publishing "An Apology for Mr. Toland,' wrote numerous pamphlets and treatises on questions of politics, religion, and literature. Among them were a pamphlet entitled "The Militia Reformed, or an Easy Scheme of Furnishing England with a constant Land Force" (1698); a "Life of Milton" (1698), and a defence of it against a criticism of Dr. Blackall (1699); editions of Lord Holles's "Memoirs" and of Harrington's "Works;" a poem on eloquence entitled "Clito;" and "Anglia Libera” (1701), a treatise on the succession of the crown of England. He visited the courts of Hanover and Berlin, apparently as a political agent, and held a theological discussion with Beausobre. Having returned to England, he professed himself in 1702 "a true Christian" and "a good churchman," and in 1705 declared himself a pantheist, and wrote political pamphlets for Harley, by whom he was sent again in 1707 to Germany and Holland. He remained abroad about 3 years as a secret political spy, ingratiated himself with Prince Eugene in 1710, and was afterward supported for a time by the earl of Oxford (Harley), but at length quarrelled with his patron and wrote pamphlets against him. Among his numerous later publications are treatises with long and fantastic titles, as "Nazarenus, or Jewish Gentile, or Mahometan Christianity, containing the History of the Ancient Gospel of Barnabas, and the Modern Gospel of the Mahometans, attributed to the same Apostle, this last Gospel being now first made known among Christians," &c., which involved him in protracted controversies. During the last 4 years of his life he lodged at Putney, having found a patron in Lord Molesworth. "Never," says Disraeli in his "Calamities of Authors," "has author died more in character than Toland; he may be said to have died with a busy pen in his hand. Having suffered from