pillars of the fauces, between which are situated the tonsils; under the anterior free extremity is the frenum which connects it with the lower jaw, a fibrous and mucous lamina or ligament, sometimes so short congenitally as to prevent the free movements of the tongue and to require an operation for its division. There is a more or less distinct longitudinal furrow on the median line, from which extend outward and forward numerous other lines whose angle of union points backward; the posterior 3d is smooth and without compound papillæ, exhibiting a few simple ones and the nodular eminences of the numerous muciparous glands; in front of this is a V-shaped ridge, the angle directed backward, formed by 2 converging lines of buttonlike eminences, the circumvallate papillæ; in front of these, and occupying the anterior of the organ, are the fungiform and conical or villiform papillæ, the former spheroidal, red, and scattered, the latter very numerous. The osseous support of the tongue is the U-shaped or hyoid bone, consisting of a base or median body, 2 greater and 2 lesser cornua, and placed in the neck between the lower jaw and the thyroid cartilage; it is the homologue of a very complex apparatus in the lower vertebrates. The muscles constitute the chief bulk of the tongue, and perform its functions in prehension, mastication, deglutition, and speech; they are arranged in a complicated manner, so as to mutually support each other, rendering the movements of the organ exceedingly varied and extensive; they are attached to the submucous fibrous tissue, which is firm and thick on the superior surface. The mucous membrane is invested with a delicate scaly epithelium, the superficial layer of which readily and constantly falls off. The papillæ are much like those of the skin, most being compound organs, in their nervous and vascular supply; the circumvallate are 6 to 10 in number, and sometimes of an inch in diameter; the fungiform are to of an inch in diameter, and vary greatly in number, perhaps accounting for the well known diversity in the acuteness of the sense of taste in different individuals; the filiform are the most numerous, closely set like the pile of velvet, covering the anterior of the tongue, and the seat of what is called the fur; their epithelium frequently breaks up into hair-like processes, having their imbrications directed backward, which mark a physiological distinction between the sentient circumvallate and fungiform papillæ and the protective and motor filiform and conical ones. The conical papillæ are generally regarded as tactile, the fungiform and circumvallate as gustatory (acutely tactile), and the filiform as the homologues of the recurved spines of the tongue of the cats, and as principally concerned in regulating the movements of the food in order to bring it within the reach of the muscles of deglutition. The principal arteries of the tongue are the lingual branches of the external carotid; the sensory nerves are the lingual branch of the 5th pair of trifacial VOL. XV.-34

and the glossopharyngeal, distributed respectively to the anterior and posterior portions, and the motor nerve is the hypoglossal; for their functions see TASTE. The tongue in fishes is rudimentary, and not endowed with any great sensibility or motile power; in reptiles it varies greatly in length, size, and movability, being in some immovable or short and thick, in some remarkable for slenderness and length (as in serpents), and in others for protractility (as in the chameleon and frog); in them it is usually an organ of prehension and not of sensation. The tongue in birds is also prehensile and not gustatory, and generally provided at the base with numerous spines directed backward to prevent the return of food; though itself incapable of elongation, it may be remarkably protruded by the action of the muscles attached to the very long and movable hyoid bones. In some mammals, as the giraffe and ant-eater, it is capable of great elongation, and is an important organ of prehension; the recurved spines of the cats have been referred to, and constitute efficient instruments for cleaning flesh from bones and for combing their fur. In man the tongue is not, properly speaking, prehensile, but is engaged in the acts of suction and drinking, as every one knows; it keeps the food during mastication within the range of the teeth, collects it from all parts of the mouth preparatory to swallowing, and is also concerned in the commencement of deglutition; and it is the principal organ of speech. It is liable to inflammation, enlargement, atrophy, ulcerations, tumors, and malignant diseases. The fur in disease depends on a sodden and opaque condition of the epithelium of the filiform and conical papillæ, arising from an alteration of the mucus and saliva of the mouth, the bright red color of the fungiform presenting a striking contrast; the amount, color, and arrangement of the fur are symptomatic of various morbid changes in the system of interest to the physician, though there is great variety within the limits of health. The papillary surface is healed and repaired with great readiness and perfection.

TONIC (Gr. Tovow, to strengthen), a medicine used for increasing permanently the strength of the organic actions of the different systems of the animal economy, giving a durable exaltation to the energies of all parts of the frame, without necessarily producing any apparent increase of the healthy actions. Extracts of bitter substances (see BITTER PRINCIPLES) are much used for this purpose, as also tincture of iron, arsenic, and the like.

TONNA, CHARLOTTE ELIZABETH, better known by her nom de plume of "Charlotte Elizabeth," an English authoress, born in Norwich in 1792, died in London, July 12, 1846. She was the only daughter of the Rev. Michael Brown, rector of St. Giles's, Norwich, and a canon of the cathedral. She injured her health in childhood by intense study. She was first married to Capt. George Phelan of the British

army, with whom she resided in Nova Scotia for 2 years, and subsequently for 5 more in Ireland. Her husband becoming insolvent, and finally insane, she was compelled to resort to literature for a livelihood, and wrote numerous religious narratives and tales, which were very popular, and still remain so. In 1841 she was married a second time to Mr. L. H. J. Tonna of the united service institution, whose sympathy with her literary pursuits stimulated her to new exertions. Of her works, nearly 50 in number, the titles of those best known are: "Judah's Lion," "Judæa Capta," "Helen Fleetwood," ""Personal Recollections," "Chapters on Flowers," "Glimpses of the Past," "Principalities and Powers," "The Siege of Derry," "Count Raymond of Toulouse," ," "The Deserters," and "Wrongs of Women."

TONQUIN. See ANAM.

TONQUIN, GULF OF, an arm of the China sea, having the province of Tonquin on the W, the Chinese province of Quang-tung on the N. and E., and the island of Hainan on the S. E.; length, 300 m.; average width, 150 m. The Sangkoi or Tonquin river and several smaller streams flow into it. It has numerous islands. The typhoons are very violent in the gulf.

TONSILS, or AMYGDALE, a collection of mucous follicles situated in the throat on each side in the interval between the pillars of the fauces. They are almond-shaped, with the larger end directed upward; hence their Latin name given above, and the popular one of "almonds of the throat." They vary in size in different individuals, being generally the largest in scrofulous constitutions; their excretory ducts terminate in small sacs imbedded in their substance, and open on the mucous membrane, their secretion serving to lubricate the parts concerned in deglutition. They are well supplied with blood from the facial, inferior pharyngeal, and internal maxillary arteries, and there is a considerable network of veins around them; they receive numerous nervous filaments from the glosso-pharyngeal, par vagum, and trifacial. The external surface is adherent to the superior constrictor of the pharynx, while the internal is free and prominent; the carotid artery is behind and to the outside, which must be borne in mind in puncturing the abscesses to which they are very subject. These organs are liable to acute and chronic inflammations, with the exudation of whitish and tenacious false membranes, and great enlargement, often impeding respiration and deglutition. Their common acute inflammation is popularly called quinsy and inflammatory sore throat; it generally arises from taking cold, and begins with difficulty of swallowing and a sense of a foreign body in the throat, and is soon followed by chills and heat, and painful viscid expectoration; it commonly declines in 3 or 4 days under simple antiphlogistic treatment and astringent gargles; if the inflammation does not subside, the swelling largely increases, often threatening suffocation, which is sometimes

avoided only by the puncture or spontaneous rupture of the abscess. The enlargement of scrofulous and chronic inflammation requires a similar treatment, with the addition of tonics and alteratives, detergent gargles, stimulating and astringent applications, and, as a last resort, excision by the bistoury or a special instrument called tonsillotome. A noisy respiration during sleep in scrofulous children in many cases will indicate chronic enlargement of the tonsils. They are also the seat of phosphatic calculi, and from their mucous follicles are often cast out soft and fetid concretions. TONSTALL. See TUNSTALL.

TONSURE (Lat. tondo, to clip), the name given to a mark distinguishing the clergy of the Roman Catholic and the eastern churches from the laity, and formed by cutting off a portion or the whole of the hair from the head. During the first 5 centuries the tonsure of the clergy was entirely unknown, and the practice of shaving the head or wearing the hair too short is in fact condemned in priests by Jerome and others of the fathers. But in the latter part of the 5th century the monks began to clip the hair in a conspicuously deforming manner, or to shave the entire head, partly in order to show their contempt of the world, partly for the express purpose of exposing themselves to ridicule. From the monks the tonsure gradually passed over to the secular clergy, and in the 6th century it began to prevail throughout the church. Different forms were in use in the national churches of Europe. The tonsure of the Roman church, also called tonsura Petri, consisted in shaving the entire head and leaving only a circular crown of hair. This form was soon adopted in Spain, France, and Germany. Pope Gregory II., in 721, made it obligatory for all priests under the penalty of excommunication, and in Spain it was regarded and enforced as a mark of orthodoxy, in distinction from the tonsure of the heretics, who used to shave only a small circular part of the occiput. Later, however, this custom of the heretics prevailed again in Germany and other northern countries from climatic reasons, and is still in use. Many regulations with regard to the shape of the tonsure were made in the course of centuries, but they often came to be disregarded. The clerical crown must be preserved by repeated trimming when neces sary, and the ecclesiastical law provides that it be enlarged as the wearer rises in ecclesiastical station and dignity. The priests of Scotland and Ireland adopted, until the 8th century, a tonsure in the shape of a crescent on the forehead (tonsura Sancti Jacobi or Simonis Magi), which horrified the Roman missionaries, and had to give way to the Roman form. The tonsure of the eastern churches, in ancient times, consisted in shaving the entire head (tonsura Pauli). A complete history of the tonsure is given in Thomassin's Vetus et Nova Ecclesia Disciplina.

TONTINE, a kind of life annuity originated by Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapolitan, who published

his scheme and introduced it into France about the middle of the 17th century. The subscribers were divided into 10 classes according to their ages, or were allowed to appoint their representatives, who were thus classed, and an annuity was apportioned to each class according to their age, the survivors having the benefit of an increased annuity as their associates died, and the last survivor receiving the entire annuity of the class till the close of his or her life. The first association of this kind was founded under the administration of Cardinal Mazarin in Nov. 1653, and was called the "Royal Tontine." The total sum paid in was 1,025,000 francs, in 10 classes of 102,500 francs each. The subscription was 300 francs, and every subscriber received the interest of his investment until the death of some member of the association increased the dividend to the rest, and after the death of the last subscriber it reverted to the state. This project was not successful, nor were two others subsequently proposed by Tonti. In 1689 Louis XIV., finding his finances embarrassed, authorized an other of 1,400,000 francs divided into 14 classes, according to age, from children of 5 years to adults of 70. In 1726 the last survivor of the 13th and 14th classes was the widow of a poor surgeon who had invested in two ton tines her little capital of 300 francs, and who enjoyed at her death, at the age of 96, an income of 73,500 francs. Tontines were again resorted to by the French government in 1733 and 1734; but in 1773 they were interdicted as a measure of finance. In 1791 a tontine called the Caisse Lafarge, on a more extended scale, was established under private management; but by a gross blunder or fraud, the interest promised was an impossible one, and the subscribers, whose united contributions amounted to 60,000,000 francs, never received even simple interest, and the entire capital was lost in the disasters of the time. In England tontines have been occasionally resorted to as a measure of finance, the last opened being in 1789, on which £42,032 interest was still paid in 1859. In the United States tontines have never been made a revenue measure by the government; but in several cities there have been private annuities of this kind. A tontine building was erected in Wall street, New York, in 1792-'4, 203 shares of $200 each being subscribed by an association of merchants. In Albany, New Haven, and some other cities, buildings have been erected on the same plan.

TOOELE, a W. co. of Utah territory, bordering on Nevada territory, intersected by tributaries of Humboldt river; area, about 10,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 1,008. The surface in the E. and W. is mountainous, and the Humboldt mountains cross the W. end from N. to S. Along the streams there are several fine valleys of extraordinary fertility and beauty, but the mountain regions are rough and unproductive. Fremont's route to the Pacific traverses the county. Capital, Tooele.

TOOKE, JOHN HORNE, an English political leader and philologist, born in Westminster, June 25, 1736, died March 18, 1812. He was the son of John Horne, a poulterer; but as his father had become wealthy, he was educated at Westminster school, at Eton, and at Cambridge university, became an usher in a school at Blackheath, and much against his own wishes, but in obedience to his father's will, took orders and obtained a curacy in Kent. His preference was so strong for the law, that in 1756 he entered as a student at the Middle Temple; but in 1760 he returned again to the church, and was ordained priest, and for 3 years discharged the duties of that office in the chapelry of New Brentford. He then went to France as travelling tutor to the son of Elwes the miser. In 1765 he began his, political life by writing a pamphlet in favor of Wilkes and his party; and on a second tour to the continent he formed at Paris an intimate acquaintance with that politician. During these travels he gave up his clerical profession, and, with the exception of a short time after his return, never resumed it. He took an active interest in political matters, especially in securing the election of Wilkes from Middlesex, and in the agitation which that event created throughout the kingdom. He claimed the authorship of the celebrated reply to the king made by Beckford, then lord mayor of London, in 1770. (See BECKFORD, WILLIAM.) In 1769 he was one of the founders of the society for supporting the bill of rights; but its financial affairs involved him in a quarrel with Wilkes, which affected his popularity. In 1771 he received, after considerable opposition, his degree of M.A. from the university of Cambridge, and in consequence of his quarrel with Wilkes was attacked by Junius, against whom he defended himself with unexampled success. In 1773, designing to study law, he formally resigned his living. In resisting with great vigor, and as was thought at the time with great success, an enclosure bill, which according to custom was to be hurried through the house of commons, he gained the favor of Mr. Tooke of Purley, who assured him that he should be his heir; but, though in 1782 he changed his name to Tooke out of regard for his patron, he never received more than £8,000 from the property. He bitterly opposed the American war, and published an advertisement for a subscription for the widows and orphans of the Americans "murdered by the king's troops at Lexington and at Concord." The ministry prosecuted him for libel, and the trial took place at Guildhall in July, 1777. The defence was conducted by himself, but he was found guilty and sentenced to one year's imprisonment in the king's bench, and a fine of £200. During his confinement he published his celebrated "Letter to Mr. Dunning," in which he critically examines the case of the King vs. Lawley, which had been used as a precedent against him on his trial. The discussion rendered necessary some philological

criticisms upon the prepositions and conjunctions of the English language, as he declared that he had been made "the victim of two prepositions and a conjunction," which particles he calls "the abject instruments of his civil extinction." After his release from imprisonment in 1779, he applied for admission to the bar, but was rejected on the ground of being a clergyman. His prospects of professional success were therefore at an end. Embittered still more against the government, he published in 1780, in conjunction with Dr. Price, a pamphlet entitled "Facts," severely reflecting upon Lord North and his prosecution of the American war, addressed to landholders, stockholders, and others. Soon afterward he retired from London to a farm in Huntingdonshire; but there he caught an ague which disgusted him with agricultural pursuits, and he returned to the city and plunged once more into political life. In 1786 appeared the first part of his “Еπеа πтероeνта, or the Diversions of Purley," a strange combination of etymology, metaphysics, and politics, which has exercised a marked influence on English philology. The object of Tooke was to prove that all parts of speech, including particles, could be resolved into nouns and verbs; and that all words expressing operations of the mind, however delicate, were originally applied to objects of external perception. According to Bunsen, "he ably developed, among some doubtful speculative theories, very pregnant views respecting the origin of inflexions, suffixes, and formative words, a most important part in the comparative analysis of languages." In 1787 he published "A Letter to the Prince of Wales" in regard to his supposed marriage with a Roman Catholic. In 1788 appeared a pamphlet from his pen entitled "Two Pair of Portraits," in which he drew a contrast between the two Pitts and the two Foxes, not much to the credit of the latter. In 1790 he was a candidate for the representation of Westminster, against Fox and Lord Hood, and, though spending nothing, polled 1,700 votes. In 1794 he was tried for high treason, mainly on the ground of his participation in the action of the "Constitutional Society," in which the society for the support of the bill of rights had been merged shortly after his quarrel with Wilkes. During the proceedings he conducted himself with great firmness and courage, and was acquitted. He was defended by Gibbs and Erskine, to whom he dedicated the second volume of his "Diversions of Purley," which appeared in 1805. In 1796 he became again a candidate for parliament from Westminster, but was again unsuccessful, though polling 2,800 votes. In 1801 he obtained a seat in the house, being returned by Lord Camelford for the nominal borough of Old Sarum. This was a strange proceeding for so strenuous an advocate for parliamentary reform; but the decision of that parliament that a clergyman could not thereafter sit in the house of commons disqualified him from obtaining any

position in future. The latter years of his life were spent at Wimbledon. He was never married, but left several illegitimate children, to one of whom he bequeathed his property. His life was written by A. Stephens (2 vols. 8vo., 1813).

TOOKE. I. WILLIAM, an English clergyman, born Jan. 18, 1744, died in London, Nov. 17, 1820. In 1771 he became minister of the English church at Cronstadt, and in 1774 chaplain to the factory of the Russian company at St. Petersburg, and remained in that situation until 1792, when he returned to England. His most important works are: "A Life of Catharine II." (3 vols. 8vo.); "A View of the Russian Empire" (3 vols.); and "A History of Russia from the Foundation of the Empire to the Accession of Catharine II." His other works are chiefly novels, miscellaneous essays, and translations. II. THOMAS, an English political economist, son of the preceding, born in St. Petersburg in 1774, died in London, Feb. 26, 1858. In 1838 he published "A History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation from 1793 to 1837, preceded by a brief Sketch of the State of the Corn Trade in the last two Centuries" (2 vols. 8vo.). Four additional volumes were afterward published, bringing down the work to the year 1856. III. WILLIAM, brother of the preceding, born in St. Petersburg in 1777, studied law, and for many years practised as solicitor in London. He edited anonymously in 1804 the poetical works of Churchill, republished in 1844. In 1855 he published "The Monarchy of France, its Rise, Progress, and Fall" (8vo.).

TOOLA, or TULA, a central government of Russia, bounded by Moscow, Riazan, Orel, and Kalooga; area, 11,772 sq. m.; pop. in 1856, 1,125,517. The surface is generally flat. The most important rivers are the Oka, Upa, and Don, the two latter of which are connected by the Ivanovska canal, which forms part of the system that unites the Baltic, Black, and Caspian seas. The soil is fertile, and about of the surface is cultivated. Iron and woollen and linen goods are manufactured.-TOOLA, the capital, is situated on the Upa, 107 m. S. from Moscow; pop. about 35,000. It has an extensive cannon foundery and manufactory of arms for government, established by Peter the Great in 1717, and upward of 800 private workshops for the manufacture of firearms and cutlery.

TOOMBS, a W. co. of Minnesota, bordering on Dacotah territory, bounded S. by the Mustinka river; area, about 700 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 40.

TOOMBS, ROBERT, an American statesman, born in Washington, Wilkes co., Ga., July 2, 1810. He studied 3 years at a college in Georgia, and then went to Union college, Schenectady, N. Y., where he was graduated in 1828. Afterward he studied law at the university of Virginia, and commenced practice in his native place. In 1836 he served under Gen. Scott as captain of volunteers in the Creek war, in 1837 was elected to the state legislature, and with

the exception of 1841 continued a member of the lower house until 1845. In that year he was elected to the federal house of representatives, and served in that body until 1853, when he became a member of the U. S. senate, and at the expiration of his first term was reelected. In both houses he served on various important committees, and was a prominent member of the extreme southern party, and after the election of President Lincoln was one of the most active in persuading Georgia to secede. On Nov. 15, 1860, he made a speech at Milledgeville, Ga., in opposition to Alexander H. Stephens, in which he strongly advocated secession; and on Jan. 7, 1861, he made an impassioned address in the senate in favor of the adoption of that course by the southern states. On Jan. 19 the state of Georgia passed its secession ordinance, and on the 23d Mr. Toombs withdrew from the senate. He was a member of the confederate congress which met at Montgomery, Ala., on Feb. 4. On Feb. 18 Jefferson Davis was inaugurated provisional president of the seceded states, and on the 21st appointed Mr. Toombs his secretary of state. In September of the same year he was succeeded in this office by Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia. In entering public life Mr. Toombs belonged to the whig party, but about 1850 he went over to the democratic.

TOORKISTAN, or TURKESTAN, an extensive region of central Asia, so called from its being the original seat of the Turks or Toorkomans, in the wider sense of the appellation, and some times called Tartary, from the numerous Tartar tribes which roam over it. The name is usually restricted to the territory lying between Mongolia and the Caspian sea, and having Siberia on the N., and Persia, Cabool, the Punjaub, Cashmere, and Thibet on the S. It is divided into two distinct countries by the Bolor Tagh, the western comprising several independent khanats, and known as Independent Toorkistan, the eastern nominally subject to China, and usually called Chinese Toorkistan. -INDEPENDENT TOORKISTAN is bounded N. by the Russian Kirgheez territory and Russian Soongaria, E. by Chinese Toorkistan and Cashmere, S. by the Punjaub, Cabool, and Persia, and W. by the Caspian sea. Its area is somewhat vaguely estimated at 770,000 sq. m., and its population at 6,000,000. It is divided into a number of independent and often hostile khanats, of which the principal are Kafiristan in the S. E., Koondooz and Budukhshan in the E., Khokan in the N. E., Bokhara and Khiva in the central portion, and Toorkomania, or the south-western Kirgheez steppe, along the shores of the Caspian sea, in the W. Bokhara is the largest town, and is usually regarded as the capital of the country, though possessing no control over the remoter khanats. The other towns of importance are Khokan, Khojend, and Tashkend in Khokan; Khuloom and Koondooz in Koondooz; Khiva, Koongrad, and Shurookhs in Khiva; Samarcand,

Karshee, and Uratepeh in Bokhara; and Kaundaish and Tchitral in Kafiristan. The principal rivers are the Jihoon or Amoo-Daria (the ancient Oxus), which bisects the country, and discharges its waters into the sea of Aral; the Sir-Daria (Jaxartes), which with its numerous affluents drains the northern plain and enters the sea of Aral near its N. extremity in Siberia; the Zerafshan or Zirjafshan, which, rising in the great plain of Pamir, flows W. through the centre of the country and falls into a small salt lake S. S. W. of Bokhara. Beside these there are numerous tributaries of the Jihoon, some of them rising in the Bolor Tagh and others in the Hindoo Koosh, which are themselves important rivers; among these are the Duwan or Pjandje, the Sharood, the Akserai and its branches the Soorshab and Farkan. The Caspian sea bounds the country on the W., and the sea of Aral at the N. is partly within its limits. There are also numerous small lakes, all of them salt, of which the Siri Kol, said to be the most elevated lake in the world, the Riang Kol, the Dsarik Kol, and the Kara Kol are the most important. Between the 39th and 41st parallels the continuation of the Thian-shan or Celestial mountains (which here cross the Bolor Tagh) extends in two parallel ranges to near the meridian of 66° E., called Aktan-Isfera and Tanglakyar; the two ranges are separated by the valley of the Zerafshan, and form the northern and southern watersheds of the country. N. there is a gentle slope from the Aktan-Isfera to the shores of the Aral, which is about 84 feet below the surface of the Black sea; and S. from the Tanglakyar there is a gradual descent to the broad valley of the Jihoon. In the S. E., where the Bolor Tagh unites with the Hindoo Koosh, the lofty plain of Pamir, said to be 15,600 feet in height on the shores of the Siri Kol, falls rapidly to the valley of the Oxus, near Koondooz. The valleys of the rivers are fertile, but the more elevated lands are exceedingly sterile. The northern plain is believed by geographers to have formed at some remote period a part of the bed of the ocean. In the upper valley of the Jihoon the productions of the temperate zone are mingled with those of a semi-tropical character. The Bolor Tagh and its western prolongations protect it from the cold winds of the N. and N.. E., and the Hindoo Koosh from the hot blasts from the S. E. The climate is greatly diversified; on the northern plain the summer heats are intense, and the cold of winter equally so, while the spring and autumn are characterized by heavy rains and sudden transitions. In Bokhara the climate is pleasant, dry, and salubrious, but cold in winter, the Jihoon being frozen so that teams can pass over it. Snow lies about 3 months; there are frequent tornadoes. The soil in the valley of the upper Jihoon gives indications of a volcanic character, and the climate is influenced by subterranean heat. The geological formations of the country are in the mountainous districts secondary, on the