by their delicate touch have been enabled to read from raised letters, and to become eminent mathematicians, musicians, mechanics, naturalists, and sculptors; the fingers may even perform the work of eyes to the degree of distinguishing colors, by perceiving the differences in surfaces which reflect one colored ray and absorb the rest. It is, in the lower animals, most acute in the hands, feet, and prehensile tail of monkeys; in the lips and tongue of herbivora; in the snout of the elephant, pig, tapir, and mole; in the flying membrane, ears, and nasal appendages of bats, which can perceive even the vibrations of air; in birds, in the under surface of the toes and their webs, and in the sensitive skin of the mandibles of the duck tribe and some waders; in the under surface of the toes in many lizards, in the extensile tongue of the chameleon and serpents, in the naked skin of batrachians, and in the thumbs of the males of the latter during the reproductive season; in the antennæ and palpi of articulates, in the oral appendages of mollusks, and in the tentacles of radiates.

TOULMIN, CAMILLA. See CROSLAND. TOULMIN, JOSHUA, D.D., an English clergyman, born in London, May 11, 1740, died in Birmingham, July 23, 1815. He was educated at St. Paul's school, and at the so called dissenting academy in the house of Dr. Samuel Morton Savage, and, after being licensed to preach, became pastor of a dissenting congregation in Colyton, and in 1765 of a Baptist congregation in Taunton, where he also conducted the business of a bookseller. He subsequently adopted Unitarian opinions, declined invitations to Unitarian pastorates in Gloucester and Yarmouth, received the degree of D.D. from Harvard college in 1794, and in 1804 was chosen one of the ministers of the Unitarian congregation at Birmingham, formerly presided over by Dr. Priestley, in which position he remained till his death. His principal publications were: "Memoirs of Socinus" (1777); "Letter to Dr. John Sturges on the Church Establishment" (1782); "Dissertations on the Internal Evidences of Christianity" (1785); "Review of the Life, Character, and Writings of John Biddle, M.A." (1789); an edition of Neal's "History of the Puritans," with notes and additions (5 vols., 1794-'7; reprinted, 3 vols., 1837); "Biographical Tribute to the Memory of Dr. Priestley" (1804); "Memoirs of the Rev. Samuel Bourne" (1809); and a "Historical View of the State of the Protestant Dissenters in England" (1814). He also published several volumes of sermons, and contributed to the "Theological Repository," "Monthly Magazine," and other periodicals.

TOULON, a maritime city of France, department of Var, situated at the head of a double bay of the Mediterranean, in lat. 43° 7' N., long. 5° 56′ E., 30 m. S. E. from Marseilles, and 525 m. S. S. E. from Paris; pop. by the census of 1862, 84,987. Toulon stands upon ground which rises gradually from the

sea, and is sheltered by a ridge of lofty mountains, extending round the bay. A tongue of land stretches nearly across the entrance of the bay, and, together with all the adjacent points, is strongly fortified. The town, in addition to ramparts, bastions, and ditches, has numerous forts and outworks upon the surrounding heights, and is entered by two gates. The streets are narrow and irregular, and the squares, with the exception of the Place d'Armes, are all small. Toulon is the second naval port of France, and has 3 great arsenals, a school of naval medicine and one of naval artillery, and various other institutions connected with the navy and with commerce, beside a college, botanical garden, observatory, &c. There are two harbors, separated from the inner road and from each other by piers. One of them is surrounded by good houses and quays, and is used for mercantile purposes; while the other is surrounded by extensive government buildings, which consist of several covered slips for building vessels, workshops of different kinds, and large storehouses containing supplies for the navy; 3,000 workmen are here employed. In the armories there is a fine collection of ancient arms, and numerous valuable models of vessels of various descriptions. The naval school has a good library attached, and there are prisons to accommodate about 5,000 convicts. There are manufactories of woollen goods, imitation morocco leather, soap, &c. Ship building is carried on, and there are several founderies.-Toulon was known as a harbor in the time of the Romans. During the middle ages it was several times taken and sacked by the Saracens. In the reign of Louis XII. a tower was begun, which Francis I. completed, to defend the town from the Barbary pirates. Henry IV. strengthened the fortifications, and Louis XIV. established a royal dockyard and expended large sums under the direction of Vauban in fortifying the town and improving the accommodation of the harbor. In 1707 the combined English and Dutch fleets made an unsuccessful attack upon it by sea, while the duke of Savoy attempted to take it by land. In 1793 the royalists surrendered Toulon to the British; and during the siege which ensued Bonaparte gave the first remarkable proofs of his great military talents. When the British were obliged to evacuate the place, they burned all the maritime establishments and the greater part of the French men-of-war. The republicans gave it up to general pillage and massacre in revenge for the inhabitants having admitted the British. They also took from it its rank of capital of the department, which has never been restored. Napoleon III. has enlarged the fortifications and almost doubled the extent of the city.

TOULOUSE (anc. Tolosa), a town of France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, situated on the Garonne at the junction of the canals du Midi and Brienne, and on the railroad from Bordeaux to Cette, 132 m. S. E. from Bordeaux and 200 m. N. W. from Marseilles;

pop. in 1862, permanent and floating, 113,229. The town is principally built upon the right bank, but part of it stands upon an island in the river, and the suburb of St. Cyprien occupies the left bank. The walls formerly surrounding it have been nearly all removed to make room for improvements. The streets are narrow and crooked, badly paved, and dirty. Considerable alterations, however, have lately been made, and the town is assuming a better appearance. Among the improvements may be mentioned the Place du Capitole and the Place Lafayette. The former consists of an extensive well built square, ornamented with fountains, with one side occupied by the hôtel de ville, and is the principal place of business; and the latter is circular, lined with handsome mansions, and on the E. side opens into a fine promenade. The cathedral was commenced early in the 13th century, but has been since extensively repaired and altered, and now presents a very irregular appearance. There are several other churches, the most remarkable of which is the old church of St. Sernin, in the Romanesque style. Toulouse has an artillery school, several societies for advancing knowledge, a university academy, a medical and many other schools, a public library, an observatory, a botanical garden, a museum, and a picture gallery. The houses are nearly all built of red brick, and are only remarkable for their clumsy and gloomy appearance. The river is navigable, and is crossed by a bridge 810 feet long and 72 feet broad. There are powder mills, a cannon foundery, and an arsenal. The manufactures consist chiefly of coarse woollen and cotton goods, starch, cutlery and hardware, earthenware, vermicelli, wax candles, and leather. Pátés de foie de canards, or duck-liver pies, are made in great numbers and sent to other parts of France. An extensive trade is carried on, which is greatly facilitated by the water communication with both the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Toulouse is the see of an archbishop, and the seat of the court of appeals for several departments. It is a place of great antiquity; but though the Romans ornamented it with many public buildings, no remains of any of them are now visible. The Visigoths captured it early in the 5th century, and made it the capital of their kingdom, which it continued to be for about 100 years. In 631 it became the capital of the Visigothic kingdom of Aquitaine, and it was ruled by independent counts from 778 to 1271, when it was united to the crown of France, after which it was the capital of Languedoc till the revolution. Its university and school of medicine were formerly very celebrated. The most remarkable event which has occurred at Toulouse in modern times was the battle fought in its immediate vicinity, April 10, 1814, between the British under Wellington and the French under Soult, in which the latter were defeated. Though Bonaparte had abdicated at the time, both generals were ignorant that hostilities had ceased.

TOURAINE, formerly a central province of France, now forming the greater part of the department of Indre-et-Loire, bounded by the provinces of Maine, Orléanais, Berry, Poitou, and Anjou. It was divided into Upper and Lower Touraine. The capital was Tours. The Loire formed the dividing line between the two parts of the province, and the Cher, the Vienne, the Creuse, the Cluise, and the Indre also drained it. In the time of Julius Cæsar Touraine was inhabited by a peaceful and somewhat indolent people, the Turones, who submitted to the Romans after some opposition. In the 5th century they were successively attacked by the Huns and the Visigoths, in 480 became subject to the Gothic king Euric, and in 507 to Clovis, king of the Franks; and after the death of Dagobert I. it became a part of the kingdom of Neustria, and later of the empire of Charlemagne. From 941 to 1004 it was an independent province ruled by Thibaut, count of Tours, and his son and grandson, and subsequently to that period was embraced in the more extended district, comprising also Champagne and Brie, over which the counts of Tours ruled. In 1045 the count of Anjou, having captured Thibaut III., compelled him to give Touraine for his ransom. In 1203 it was taken by Philip Augustus from King John of England and annexed to the French crown. It was erected into a duchy in 1360 by John the Good, which was held at one period by the earls of Douglas and Mary, queen of Scots. Francis, duke of Alençon (died 1584), was the last who held it as an apanage. Its delightful climate has made it always a favorite resort, and its soil has been the scene of numerous important battles and historical events. the 16th century it was the battle ground between the Protestants and Catholics; and, a large proportion of its inhabitants being Protestants, the revocation of the edict of Nantes nearly ruined it.

In

TOURMALINE, a mineral composed of silicates of alumina, the earths, and iron, with from 5 to nearly 12 per cent. of boracic acid. It crystallizes in the hexagonal system, the two extremities of the prism being usually unlike. Hardness 7 to 7.5, or between quartz and topaz; specific gravity 2.94 to 3.3. It is found black (schorl), brown, blue (indicolite), green, red (rubellite), and rarely white or colorless (achroite). Sometimes the crystals are red at one extremity and green at the other, or red internally and green externally, or vice versa. Such specimens are found at Paris, Me., Chesterfield, Mass., and in Siberia, and these are also the best localities for rubellites and green tourmalines. The white come from St. Gothard, Siberia, and Elba. Black tourmalines and common varieties of the other colors occur in many parts of Europe and America, and the black is sometimes in such abundance as to form a large part of a rock called "schorl rock." Tourmaline becomes electrified by heat or friction with great readiness, and it has been sup

posed that the ancients were acquainted with this property. A slice cut from a tourmaline parallel to its axis forms a perfect analyzer for polarized light (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT), and this is its most valuable application. Tourmalines are seldom used in jewelry, though fine rubellites form beautiful gems and bear a high price. In the grand duke's collection at Florence there was a specimen 11 inches square, with 4 erect and one prostrate green tourmalines, 4, 2, and 24 inches long, and 4 to 1 inch thick. In the British museum is a magnificent group of pink tourmalines nearly a foot square, given by the king of Burmah to Col. Sykes, while commissioner at his court. The tourmaline appears to have been first brought to Europe from Ceylon by the Dutch, about the end of the 17th century, and was exhibited as a curiosity, on account of its first attracting and then repelling light bodies when electrified by heating it. It was then considered as a sort of magnet, but appears to have been little known even down to the middle of the 18th century, as Linnæus, who was the first to refer its attractive power to electricity, had never seen one. In 1740 a specimen was worth 8 or 10 Dutch florins, or $3.28 to $4.10.

TOURNAMENT (It. torniamento; Fr. tourner, to turn), a military sport of the middle ages, in which the parties engaged exhibited their courage, prowess, and skill in arms. It took its rise after the establishment of the feudal system, and appears to have been introduced into northern Europe as early as the middle of the 9th century, although several centuries elapsed before it came into familiar or reputable use. This was owing perhaps to the costliness as well as the sanguinary character of the contests in the early tournaments, which often resulted in the death or serious injury of several of the combatants, and were conducted very much in the spirit of the gladiatorial shows of the ancient Romans. Hence the prohibition of the practice by such princes as Henry II. of England, and the steady opposition of the church from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 13th century. With the institution of chivalry and knighthood the tournament lost many of its objectionable features; and as an incentive to martial exploits and to a generous emulation in all knightly offices, it began during the period of the crusades to be tolerated and even encouraged throughout Christendom. The church, which had prohibited persons from engaging in tournaments on pain of excommunication, and had denied Christian burial to such as lost their lives in them, finally relaxed its opposition, and until the latter part of the 15th century the sport continued in full activity. It thenceforth became gradually transformed into a court pageant, often of the most magnificent and costly description; but the tragical death of Henry II. of France at a tournament in 1559 occasioned its abolition in all parts of Europe, although for nearly a century later it continued

to be occasionally revived at court festivities as a memento of the past rather than a subsisting and popular custom. The decay of chivalry, the introduction of firearms, and the gradual disuse of defensive armor, together with the rise of the commercial spirit and the new civilization thereby extended over the world, were the real causes of its decline. Whatever may have been the nature of the combats in tournaments at the origin of the practice, they soon became for the most part encounters between mounted adversaries (whence the derivation of the term, as illustrative of the agility required by the combatants in turning or managing their horses), who were knights or at least candidates for knighthood, as esquires or pages. A joust was, properly speaking, a combat between two knights, while the tournament included a number of jousts, or an encounter of several knights on a side.-In the course of time numerous regulations, having the authority of a code of laws, prescribed the manner in which tournaments should be conducted; and, except where national pride or rivalry, or personal enmity, inflamed the combatants, no serious result was likely to happen. They were generally held at the invitation of some prince upon the birth or nuptials of royal persons, during royal progresses, or at high court festivals, and heralds were sent into the neighboring kingdoms to invite the knights to be present. These, if the occasion was one of importance, came frequently from distant countries, attended by splendid retinues; and on the appointed day the galleries encircling the lists, or level enclosed space in which the knights contended, were gay with banners and costly draperies and crowded with spectators, conspicuous among whom were the ladies, whose approving smiles were the rewards most esteemed by the victors. In the flourishing period of tournaments two kinds of arms were employed, those expressly made for the purpose, consisting of lances with the points blunted, or covered with pieces of wood, called rockets, and swords blunted or rebated; and those ordinarily used in warfare, termed armes à outrance, which, however, in many cases were not permitted by the judges of the tournament. The blows, whether of lance or sword, were required to be directed at the head and breast, and no combatant was permitted to strike an adversary after he had raised his visor or to wound his horse. Each knight in attendance was obliged to prove his noble birth and rank, which were originally proclaimed by the heralds with sound of trumpet, whence the word blazonry, signifying the art of deciphering the heraldic devices on a coat of arms, from the German blasen, to blow. At a later period the emblazoned shields of the knights, suspended at the barriers or entrance of the lists, sufficed to indicate their rank and family. If upon the accusation of any lady present the bravery or loyalty of a knight was impeached, he was excluded by the heralds

from the contest.

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The heralds having proclaimed the laws of the tournament, at the sound of the trumpet the whole body of knights, each with his attendant squire, entered the lists in a glittering cavalcade, distinguishable only by their emblazoned shields or by the favors of their mistresses-a still prouder bearing-suspended from their crests, after which preliminary spectacle the martial exercises of the tournament commenced. At the word of the heralds, Laissez-aller, the opposing combatants rode at each other in full career, striving to direct their lances fairly upon the helmet or shield of their adversaries, that one being adjudged the victor who broke most spears "as they ought to be broken," who held his seat the longest, and who showed most endurance in keeping his visor closed. Sometimes dismounted knights encountered each other with swords or axes. The heralds and attendant minstrels meanwhile animated the combatants by appeals to their gallantry and devotion, or by approving shouts at any unusual display of strength or skill, the ladies waved their scarfs, and the friends of individual knights shouted encouragement from the galleries. At the close of these animating combats, the prizes were announced by the judges, selected from the older knights, but were awarded by female hands. "Victory in a tournament," says Hallam, was little less glorious, and perhaps at the moment more exquisitely felt, than in the field; since no battle could assemble such witnesses of valor. 'Honor to the sons of the brave!' resounded amid the din of martial music from the lips of the minstrels, as the conqueror advanced to receive the prize from his queen or his mistress; while the surrounding multitude acknowledged in his prowess of that day an augury of triumphs that might in more serious contests be blended with those of his country."-A favorite form of the tournament was the so called passage of arms, in which a party of knights, assuming the office of challengers, offered combat to all who dared oppose them. Of this, as also of the mêlée or encounter of bodies of knights attended by their squires, a splendid description is given in Scott's "Ivanhoe," which affords a more vivid idea of the tournament, with all its martial exercises, than the writings of Froissart or any other of the old chroniclers. The later tournaments were however harmless in comparison with such sanguinary encounters as these; and the combatants, while aping the forms and usages of chivalry, were so destitute of the old knightly spirit of their predecessors in the lists as to content themselves chiefly with an ostentatious display of magnificent equipments or of skilful horsemanship. A splendid festival in the form of a tournament was given by the earl of Eglinton at Eglinton castle, in the west of Scotland, in 1839, on which occasion many of the visitors assumed the character of ancient knights, and a queen of beauty awarded the prizes.

TOURNAY, or TOURNAI (Flem. Doornik; anc. Turris Nerviorum, afterward Turnarum), a frontier town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, situated on both banks of the Scheldt, 28 m. W. N. W. from Mons and 45 m. W. S. W. from Brussels; pop. 33,000. The river is crossed by several fine bridges and lined by spacious quays, planted with shade trees, and used as promenades. The town is strongly fortified and defended by a citadel constructed by Vauban. It is entered by 7 gates, and consists of the old town, on the left bank of the river, and the new town, on the right. The former contains the cathedral, which is a large and beautiful edifice in the Gothic style, of great antiquity, ornamented externally by fine towers with spires, and in the interior by several sculptures in marble, fine paintings by Rubens, and ancient remains; but it was considerably defaced during the French revolution. There are several other churches, the most remarkable being that of St. Brice, with the tomb of King Childeric adjoining. The market place, near the cathedral, contains a belfry supposed to have been part of a castle erected in the 13th century. Tournay is the seat of extensive manufactures, which give employment to about of the inhabitants; the more important products are woollen and cotton cloth, hosiery, linen fabrics, camlets, various kinds of yarn, waistcoat patterns and other fancy articles of dress, carpets, for which Tournay is particularly famous, earthenware and porcelain, bronze goods and hardware, cutlery, hats, paper, and leather. There are numerous breweries, and distilleries where curaçoa and other liqueurs are made, salt refineries, and dyeing establishments. Vessels of about 150 tons burden can ascend the river to Tournay, and it is connected by railroads with all the chief towns of Belgium and France.-At the time of its conquest by Julius Cæsar, Tournay was one of the chief towns of the Nervii. During the middle ages it was one of the most important towns of Belgium; and in modern times it has frequently been besieged and taken in the various wars that have desolated this part of Europe.

TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE, a French botanist, born at Aix, Provence, June 5, 1656, died in Paris, Nov. 28, 1708. He received a classical education, was destined for the church, and entered a theological seminary; but after his father's death in 1677 he devoted himself to natural philosophy, in 1679 attended lectures in the medical school at Montpellier, afterward explored Languedoc, Roussillon, Catalonia, and the Pyrénées, and returning to Aix in 1681 began to classify the plants he had gathered. In 1683, being called to Paris by Fagon, physician of Louis XIV., he was appointed professor of botany in the jardin des plantes, and drew a large concourse to his lectures. In 1688 he visited Spain and Portugal, and a little later went to England and Holland, to gather plants. He was offered the professorship of

botany at the university of Leipsic, which he declined; became a member of the academy of sciences in 1692, and took the degree of M.D. in 1698, when already 42 years of age, publishing as his thesis the Histoire des plantes qui naissent aux environs de Paris, avec leur usage en médecine, which was reprinted with annotations by Jussieu (2 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1725). He had already published his Éléments de botanique, ou méthode pour connaître les plantes (3 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1694), which he translated into Latin under the title of Institutiones Rei Herbaria (3 vols. 4to., 1700), presenting a full exposition of his natural system of botany, several classifications of which have been preserved by Linnæus. In 1700 under Louis XIV. he visited the island of Candia, the archipelago, Constantinople, the southern shore of the Black sea, Armenia, Georgia, and the interior of Asia Minor, gathering in this tour no fewer than 1,356 new plants. These were classified according to his system, and included many new species, described in his Corollarium Institutionum Rei Herbaria (1703). The general. account of his journey, Voyage du Levant, which is considered a masterpiece in point of knowledge and interest, was printed at the expense of the government in 2 vols. 4to., the last being completed in 1717. It has been reprinted in 3 vols. 8vo.

TOURNIQUET (Fr. tourner, to turn), a surgical instrument for stopping the flow of blood in the limbs by exerting a strong compression on the principal artery. It was invented by Morel, a French surgeon, about the middle of the 17th century, and was modified subsequently by Nuck, Verduc, Monro, Petit, and Louis. Its usual form is that of a firm pad on the under surface of a brass plate, to which a strong band of webbing is attached, by means of which the limb can be ligatured, and a screw on the upper surface of the plate, which regulates at the same time the ligation and the pressure. So that the object desired, the compression of the artery, is attained, the form of the instrument is of but little consequence; a very effective tourniquet has often been extemporized by tying a knot in a handkerchief, and, having placed the knot over the artery, twisting the ends of the handkerchief with a stick. The tourniquet is of service in checking bleeding from a wounded artery in a limb, and for preventing its flow in amputation. It is also used, in some cases, to compress aneurismal and other tumors, with a view of producing coagulation or absorption; but at the present day other modes of compression are generally preferred for this purpose.

TOURO, JUDAH, an American philanthropist, of Jewish descent and faith, born in Newport, R. I., in 1776, died in New Orleans, Jan. 18, 1854. He removed to New Orleans in 1802, where he engaged in commercial enterprises, and also purchased much real estate. He accumulated a large fortune, and gave liberally through life to benevolent objects. In

1815 he served under Gen. Jackson in the defence of his adopted city, and was wounded in the battle. At his death he gave more than half of his property for charitable purposes. Among his bequests were $80,000 to found an almshouse in New Orleans; $65,000 to the 13 Hebrew congregations of that city; $20,000 to the New York Jews' hospital; to the relief society for indigent Jews in Palestine, $10,000, and for ameliorating the condition of the Jews in the Holy Land, $50,000; to each of the Hebrew congregations in Boston, Hartford, New Haven, Newport, New York, Charleston, and Savannah, $5,000; to the female asylum and boys' asylum in Boston, each $5,000; and to the Massachusetts female hospital, $10,000. At the period of his death he had no known living relatives.

TOURS (anc. Cæsarodunum), a walled town of France, capital of the department of Indreet-Loire, situated on a flat tongue of land between the Loire and its tributary the Cher, 120 m. S. S. W. from Faris; pop. in 1856, 33,204. The Loire is crossed by a handsome bridge of 15 arches. The town is of oblong form, and lies parallel to the river, the banks of which are lined by a fine quay with handsome houses and well planted promenades. A great number of the houses are modern, and several of the streets are well laid out, the principal one extending the whole length of the town, and having at one end a statue of Descartes, who was born in the vicinity. The cathedral of St. Gatien is 256 feet long and 85 feet wide in the interior, and is highly ornamented. The W. front is flanked by 2 domed towers 205 feet high, and has 3 lofty portals surmounted by a window of extraordinary dimensions. It contains, among other objects of great interest, a fine marble monument of the children of Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany. There are several churches and ancient edifices. The church of St. Julian, built in the 13th century, now used as a coach house, is a fine pointed edifice; and 2 circular towers, enclosed within the cavalry barracks, formed part of the castle built here by Henry II. of England. The hôtel de ville contains a public library of 40,000 volumes and several remarkable MSS. The archiepiscopal palace is one of the finest buildings of the kind in France. There are several public walks, a race course, and a botanical garden. The most important manufacture is silk, which was established here earlier than in any other part of France by workmen brought from Italy in the 15th century. In the 16th century 20,000 hands were employed in this branch of industry, but the competition of Lyons, where the climate is more favorable to the silkworm, has reduced the number considerably. Broadcloth, rugs, woollen yarn, starch, leather, wax candles, and some wine and brandy are also manufactured.-Tours was anciently the capital of the Gallic tribe of the Turones, afterward of a division of Gaul under the Romans, and later of Touraine. It had a