the Huns, Goths, Gepida, Lombards, Bulgarians, Avars, Petcheneges, and other tribes, and at the close of the 10th century conquered by the Hungarians, who ruled it by waywodes, for a time disputing its possession with the Cumanians. Having shared the fate of Hungary for centuries, it became an independent principality during the Turkish-Austrian wars, being ruled among others by the Zápolyas, Báthoris, Bocskay, Bethlen, the Rákóczys, and Apafis, until it was finally annexed to Austria in 1713. (See HUNGARY.) Among the most important recent diets of Transylvania were those opened in 1834, 1842, and 1848. On the E. and S. frontiers the people down to a late date held their land under the tenure of protecting the country against foreign aggression in these directions, the hardy and warlike Szeklers in the E. constituting the principal strength of this military frontier organization.

TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY. See

LEXINGTON.

TRAP (Swed. trappa, a stair), a class of rocks so named from the stair-like or columnar structure of its masses. The traps are distinguished by their composition, which consists chiefly of feldspar, augite, and hornblende, in various proportions and states of aggregation. Among the principal varieties are the basalts, amygdaloids, greenstones, dolerites, &c.

TRAPANI, a province of Sicily, situated at the W. extremity of the island, bounded E. by the provinces of Palermo and Girgenti, and on the other sides by the Mediterranean sea; area, 1,387 sq. m.; pop. in 1859, 205,566. The coast line is very irregular, and there are several bays, the largest of which is the gulf of Castellamare. The most important of the numerous islands off the W. coast are the three anciently called the gates Insulæ, viz., Favignana, Levanzo, and Maretimo. The surface of Trapani is traversed by several offsets from the Madonian mountains, which have their W. extremity in this province. Many rivers and streams take their rise in these hills, but their courses are all short, and none of them are navigable. The soil is generally fertile, and produces abundant crops of grain.-TRAPANI (anc. Drepanum), the capital, is situated on a peninsula which extends into the Mediterranean, 16 m. N. N. E. from Marsala (anc. Lilybæum), and 46 m. W. S. W. from Palermo; pop. in 1856, 27,286. It is surrounded by walls and defended by several outworks. The streets are regular, but generally badly paved, and many of the houses are well built. There is a cathedral, about 40 churches, a palace where the provincial assemblies hold their meetings, a college, 2 seminaries, 2 hospitals, and some charitable institutions.-Drepanum (Gr. 8peTavŋ, a sickle, from the shape of the promontory) was founded by Hamilcar during the first Punic war, about 260 B. C., who transferred thither the inhabitants of the neighboring city of Eryx. It remained one of the chief strongholds of the Carthaginians throughout the

war; off its port they gained a great naval victory under Adherbal in 249, destroying nearly the whole Roman fleet; and it was in attempting to raise its siege by the Roman consul Ĉatulus in 241, that their ships under Hanno suffered, off the island of Favignana (anc. Ægu8a), the total defeat which ended the war. Its name does not again appear in ancient history. TRAPEZIUM AND TRAPEZOID (Gг. трапeČα, a table). In geometry, the first of these terms is a general name for a plane figure bounded by four straight lines, no two of which are parallel; the other is restricted to such a figure having two opposite sides parallel, differing in this respect from a parallelogram, in which each pair of opposite sides is respectively parallel.

TRAPPISTS, the name of the most rigorous among the religious orders of the Roman Catholic church, founded by the abbé de Rancé in the celebrated abbey of La Trappe, in the department of Orne. This abbey was founded about 1140 by the liberality of a count of Perche, and adopted the rule of the Cistercians in 1148, but subsequently so much degenerated that its inhabitants came to be called "the bandits of La Trappe." Rancé received the abbey as a benefice when only 12 years of age, and, having entered the order after a dissolute life, not only reformed its morals, but laid in it the foundation of a new and independent branch of the Cistercian order (1666), called, after the name of the abbey, the Trappists. (See RANCE.) The monastic rule is noted for its severity. The members rise in the morning at 2 o'clock, and 12 hours a day are devoted to devotional exercises, the remainder to hard labor, mostly in the field. No worldly conversation is allowed; when meeting, they salute each other with the solemn Memento mori ("Remember death"). Their scanty food consists of water and vegetables; meat, wine, and beer are entirely forbidden. They sleep on a board, with a pillow of straw; and they never undress, not even in case of sickness. Hospitality is earnestly recommended; but it is also enjoined to the members to observe, in the exercise of hospitality, as much as possible the customary silence of the order and the simplicity of its mode of life. Until the time of the French revolution the order of the Trappists spread but little, remaining confined to the abbey of La Trappe, one establishment in Tuscany, and one in western Germany. The revolution expelled them from La Trappe in 1791, and for more than 20 years the scattered members wandered through Switzerland, Germany, England, Spain, Russia, and North America, founding from time to time a number of new establishments, most of which they were after a few years again compelled to leave. In 1817 they returned to La Trappe, and soon founded a number of other establishments in France. The order was especially prosperous under the administration of the superior-general Geramb (after 1825), one of the few Trappists who have won a reputation

for authorship. In 1828, and again in 1830, all the French establishments of the order were ordered by the government to be suppressed, but in neither case was the decree executed. In 1860 they had 15 abbeys in France, and a large establishment at Staoueli in Algeria, which receives an annual stipend from the government, and sustains a large agricultural school for young Arabs; there were also in the same year 3 houses in Belgium, 2 in Italy, 1 in Ireland, 1 in Turkey, and 3 in North America (New Haven in the diocese of Louisville, New Melleray in the diocese of Dubuque,. and Tracadie in the diocese of Arichat, Canada); in all, 26 abbeys with about 2,000 members.-An offshoot of the order of Trappists is the congregation of "Trappist Preachers," founded about 20 years ago by the abbé Muard, at Avallon, France, which connects home missionary labors with the observance of a Trappist mode of life.-The first convent of Trappist nuns was founded in 1692 in France. In 1860 they had altogether 8 houses, of which one was in England (Stapehill in Dorsetshire), and the remainder in France.

TRAVANCORE, a semi-independent native state of Hindostan, subsidiary to the Madras presidency, occupying the S. W. extremity of the Indian peninsula, bounded N. by Cochin and Coimbatoor, E. by the Ghauts, which separate it from the British districts of Tinnevelly and Madura, and S. and W. by the Indian ocean; area, 722 sq. m.; pop. 1,011,824. The capital is Trivandrum; other chief towns, Quilon, Alleppey, Anjenga, and Kotar. The N. part of the coast is low and sandy, and bordered with extensive groves of cocoanut trees; but toward the S. extremity, which terminates in Cape Comorin, it assumes a bolder aspect. There is no harbor, but the roadstead of Alleppey is one of the best upon the Malabar coast. Travancore is well watered by several rivers, those of the N. part of the country flowing into "backwaters" or lagoons, which extend for a considerable distance nearly parallel with the coast. The mountains which form the E. boundary vary in height from 4,000 to 7,000 feet; and the tract lying between them and the coast is generally hilly till it approaches the neighborhood of the sea. During the S. W. monsoon, between June and September, heavy rains fall and cool the atmosphere; but at other seasons the climate is dry, and in the months of February, March, April, and May the weather is exceedingly hot. Pep per, cardamoms, ginger, cocoa and areca nuts, cinnamon, nutmegs, and rice are all cultivated; the last named yields two or three crops in the year. The wild animals resemble those of the province of Malabar. The horned cattle of Travancore are all small, and horses are not much used. There are but few manufactures; a little sugar is made, and some salt. The exports consist principally of pepper, ginger, various spices, dye stuffs, areca and cocoa nuts, timber, and dried fish.-Travancore is a portion of ancient Malabar, and the inhabitants and

customs are similar to those found in that province. The rajah is a Hindoo; and the inheritance of the sovereignty, as well as that of all property, passes in the female line. The population includes about 170,000 Roman Catholic and Syrian Christians, and about half that number of Moplahs. Toward the middle of the last century the rajah of Travancore extended his territories to their present limits, but in 1790 he was obliged to call upon the British to assist him in preserving his dominions from the grasp of Tippoo Sultan; and by subsequent treaties he yielded up a good part of his sovereignty, and agreed to pay a large subsidy, in consideration of British protection.

TRAVERS, JULIEN GILLES, a French poet and miscellaneous author, born in Valognes, department of Manche, Jan. 31, 1802. After teaching in several provincial colleges, he became in 1832 principal of the college of Falaise. From 1842 to 1856 he occupied the chair of Latin literature at Caen. Beside several volumes of original poems, including Les Algériennes (1827), Les distiques de Muret, imitated in French verse (1834), Deuil (1837), and Gerbes glanées (1859), he has published an edition of the poetical works of Boileau, the Vaux-deVire of Oliver Basselin (1833), and a translation of the "Phoenix" of Cardinal Bona (1858); and he has edited since 1829 the Annuaire de la Manche, a valuable repertory of local history and statistics, and since 1840 the Bulletin de l'instruction publique et des sociétés savantes de l'académie de Caen, of which he became secretary in 1839.

TRAVIS, a central co. of Texas, intersected by the Colorado river; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 8,080, of whom 3,136 were slaves. The surface is moderately hilly, and the soil very fertile. The productions in 1850 were 149,365 bushels of Indian corn, 18,637 of sweet potatoes, 41,102 lbs. of butter, and 234 bales of cotton. There were 2 newspapers, and 183 pupils attending public schools. Steamboats ascend the river to Austin, the capital of the county and of the state.

TREADMILL, or TREADWHEEL, an instrument of punishment, formerly extensively adopted in England and the United States, but now generally abandoned, from its injurious and depressing effect. The treadwheel was similar in construction to an ordinary water wheel, only that the buckets of the latter were replaced by stepping boards or planks, on which there was room for 10 to 20 men to stand in a line, the weight of whose bodies caused the wheel to revolve, and thus compelled them to step constantly from one stepping board to the next above it. A hand rail was provided, by taking hold of which the prisoner was prevented from being drawn down by the revolutions of the wheel, and a screen of boards above prevented his climbing it. The wheel was used for driving machinery. The rate of exertion maintained by the convicts depended upon the height of the steps and the velocity of the rev

olutions; the former varied from 7 to 9 inches, and the latter required an average of 45 steps per minute. To maintain this velocity, relays of men were necessary, as one gang could not continue the exertion more than 10 or 12 minutes at a time. After resting 5 or 6 minutes, they were able to resume their labor. The hours of labor were usually 10 per day, and a prisoner would be on the wheel about 6 hours in that time. The number of feet of ascent per day ranged from 8,000 to 21,000.-The treadmill was introduced into England, in the bridewell at Bury, by William Cubitt, in 1818, and for some years was employed in most of the county prisons. In Coldbath-Fields prison females were put upon the wheel, but it was found to produce such injurious effects on their health, that it was after a time discontinued. It was introduced into the United States in 1823, and was first used in New York.-A similar contrivance was the crank machine, by which the prisoner was required to turn a crank to raise water, which was permitted to flow back into the reservoir from which it was drawn; this was adopted in the separate prisons, and a gyrometer out of the reach of the prisoner, but subject to the inspection of the keeper, revealed the number of revolutions made in a day.

TREADWELL, DANIEL, an American inventor, born in Ipswich, Mass., in 1791. While still young he made his first invention, that of a machine for making wood screws. In 1818 he produced a printing press of a new construction, and went to England in 1819. He there conceived the construction of a power press, which on his return was completed in a year, and was the first press by which a sheet was printed on this continent by other than human power. It was widely used; and in New York large editions of the Bible were published by means of it at small cost. In 1822, in connection with Dr. John Ware, he established and conducted the "Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts." In 1825 he was employed by the city of Boston to make a survey for the introduction of water. In 1826 he devised a way of conducting railway transportation in both directions upon a single track by means of turnouts, which was the method upon which many of the principal railroads of the United States went into operation. In 1829 he completed a machine for spinning hemp for cordage, which was the first ever successfully used for that purpose; works capable of spinning 1,000 tons in a year were erected in Boston in 1831; and by machines furnished by him in 1836 to the Charlestown navy yard, all the hemp is still spun and the cordage made for the U. S. navy. From that time American cordage began to be exported. The machines were used in Canada, Ireland, and Russia; and one of them, called a circular hackle or lapper, has been generally adopted wherever hemp is spun for coarse cloth. In 1834 he became Rumford professor of technology in Harvard college. Soon after

ward, perceiving the utility of cannon of a larger caliber than any in use, he devoted himself to that subject, and in four years reduced to practice his method of making cannon of wrought iron and steel. He executed a contract with the United States for 12 6-pounder field pieces, and the government also desired 32-pounders for the navy, and he went to work upon them. But the patronage of the government was not sufficient to warrant a continuance of the manufacture. The great objection to the Treadwell gun was its cost. To obviate this he made an important improvement on his first method of construction, for a description of which see CANNON. He determined by exact calculation, that a gun made in this way would be as strong as if made in his first method, would come within the reach of ordinary skill, and be about as cheap as the common cast iron gun. He described this new method in a memoir before the American academy in 1835, secured his invention by patent, and published an account of it in 1856. It is certain that 18 years before the gun was produced in England known as the Armstrong gun, Treadwell had made his; and that 15 years after his specifications had been published in Europe, and his English patent enrolled, and some years after that patent had been published in the volume of the "English Printed Specifications," Sir William Armstrong produced his gun, formed upon the same plan, and adding thereto rifling and breech-loading. Professor Treadwell believed that it would give us great superiority over all the European powers using the old ordnance, to use guns made in his method, with rifling added, and in 1860 went to Washington to urge this upon the government. In a pamphlet published in 1862 he relates the measures that he adopted, and his ill success. He resigned his professorship in 1845, but still resides in Cambridge.

TREASON, in general terms, any act of hostility against a state, committed by one who owes allegiance to it. There is one important difference in what may be called the form or manifestation of this crime, which seems to constitute a difference in its essence, and has led to some confusion of thought as to the crime itself, and as to the laws or proceedings which have for their end its prevention. This difference is between the crime as it may be committed against a monarch or against a republic. Where the power and majesty of a state are embodied in a personal sovereign, there treason against him is treason against the state; but where the state is not thus impersonated, the treason must be against the state itself, and cannot be committed against any person. The crimen læsæ majestatis, in all the ages of republican Rome, was regarded as a crime against the state, and not against its magistrates, excepting as they represented the state. The simple word majestas was often used as meaning this offence, although the whole expression of it was: crimen læsæ, im

minuta, diminuta, or minuta majestatis. At a later period, when the emperors, having first accumulated in their persons the higher magistracies of the republic, gradually and yet rapidly became despotic and irresponsible monarchs, while the language of the law remained almost unchanged for a considerable time, the crime itself came to be regarded as primarily a crime against the personal sovereign, and derivatively against the state. In Rome, as afterward in England, the power of the sovereigns to enlarge the scope of this crime, and accuse whom they would of it, was enormously abused. But in both of these countries it always remained, and in all civilized countries it must always remain, the highest of crimes, and more deserving of the severest punishment than any other; and for these reasons it needs to be most carefully limited, and to be guarded not only as to its extent, but as to the proof by which it may be established. The constitution of the United States (art. 3, sec. 3) declares that "treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort." This cannot be regarded as a definition of treason, so much as a limitation of it, and a declaration of what portion of the offences which had been at different times included within its meaning should be regarded as so included by our law. The word treason is used as a customary law term of well known significance; and indeed, in the most important cases which have arisen in the United States, it would seem that this provision of the constitution has but exchanged the burden of defining treason, for that of defining the levying war against a state and adhering to its enemies.-In order to show the true meaning of the word treason, we must go back to the Roman civil law, which on this point had an important influence on the English law. In the early days of Rome, the word perduellio (from perduellis, which is defined by Gaius as hostis) was used almost as a synonyme of majestas, and indicates the idea of hostility to the state as belonging to it. Although commonly spoken of as the equivalent of treason, majestas certainly had a wider extent of meaning and operation than treason ever had in its extremest abuse in England. Cicero says (using the word majestas here in its original sense): Majestas est in imperii atque in nominis populi Romani dignitate. Elsewhere, for the purpose of defining the criminal offence of lasa majestatis, he says: Majestatem minuere est de dignitate, aut amplitudine, aut potestate populi, aut eorum quibus populus potestatem dedit aliquid derogare; and in this wide sense, majestas was applied to any maladministration in office of any magistrate. It became afterward much more like treason as it was in the worst periods of English history; and the abuse of it may be illustrated by some of the provisions of imperial law about the statues of the emperors. By some of these, it was declared that to repair their statues when going

But

to decay, or to injure one accidentally and unintentionally, or even sell one if it had not been consecrated, was not a crime against the majesty of the state; but to melt one down after it had been consecrated, constituted this offence. The earliest punishment of the crime was perpetual interdiction from fire and water; the later, death, to persons of low condition by wild beasts or burning, to those of higher rank by the ordinary method of execution.We find treason recognized and punished as a crime from the beginning of the common law; and always the cause of the crime was some act of hostility against the government by one who owed to it allegiance; in other words, it was the violation of the duty of allegiance. during many ages the criminal law of England was unwritten, and lay in the determinations of judges who were removable at the king's pleasure, and who were often so corrupt that public justice was perverted into an instrument of remorseless tyranny. In the reign of Edward IV. an unfortunate punster, who kept an inn in London with the sign of the crown, said he would make his son heir of the crown; and for this offence he was hanged, drawn, and quartered. In the same reign an owner of deer, one of which was killed by the king while hunting, said, in a moment of anger, that he wished the horns of the deer were in the king's stomach; and for this he was put to death. But at a later period, when Russell and Sidney were slain through the instrumentality of a judicial trial for treason, this atrocious wickedness assumes at least a more dignified appearance. Indeed, during the whole of English history until the times of Cromwell, treason always had, in a greater or a less degree, the character of a political offence. many periods the leading men of the age fell victims to it. Hence has arisen a feeling of compassion for the sufferers, and of doubt as to their guilt, which has had an important influence on the public estimation of the crime in that country, and to some extent in this. Another reason for some laxity of thought and feeling concerning this crime, is the extreme uncertainty of the earlier law as to its definition and limits. Thus, Glanville expressly identifies it with the crimen læsæ majestatis; Bracton includes within it the counterfeiting not merely of the king's seal, but of the king's money; and by a very current phrase it was supposed to embrace all "encroaching of (encroachment upon) royal power." So early as the 25th year of Edward III. an attempt was made to remedy this uncertainty by a statute defining treason, which was for the time an excellent law, although quite too wide in its scope. Among the principal offences here called treason were compassing the death of the king, queen, or prince, or levying war against the king, or adhering to the king's enemies; but all these offences were to be proved by some overt act. In some of the subsequent reigns this excellent provision was evaded by con

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