Mamelukes, Christians, and negro slaves. The Arabs are of the same family as the Bedouins of Arabia, and their language does not differ materially from Arabic. They form the bulk of the population, and generally reside in the country districts. The towns are mostly peopled by Moors, Jews, and negro slaves, none of the other races being very numerous. Some of the Arabs have fixed homes and reside in villages, but many of them are nomadic. There are some manufactures of woollen goods, and cloth for tents is made of goats' hair. The trade of Tripoli is very considerable. The exports by sea consist chiefly of wool, cattle, hides, gold dust, ostrich feathers, ivory, gum, dried fruits, saffron, senna, and different kinds of drugs, barilla, and sheep's fat; and the imports are clothes of every description, spices, sugar, coffee, spirits, arms, cutlery, hardware, &c. Caravans arrive from the interior of Africa twice a year, and bring slaves, gold dust, &c., which are exchanged for goods of European manufacture. The annual caravans from Morocco, on their way to and from Mecca, pass through the country, but their size has diminished greatly of late years.-Like the governments of the other Barbary states, that of Tripoli is a complete despotism. The bey is generally selected from among the Turkish officers resident at the capital, and confirmed by the sultan. In former times the revenue was chiefly derived from the prizes taken by corsairs, and the sale of the Europeans captured into slavery; but since these sources have been cut off, a system of monopolies exceedingly injurious to trade has been adopted. The bey of Fezzan and the sheiks of Barca and some neighboring tribes pay tribute, and a land tax is imposed, together with one on Jews and merchants, as well as on exports and imports. The religion is almost entirely Mohammedanism; but the temperance enjoined by the prophet is not practised in Tripoli. Wine shops are kept openly, and receive the sanction of the government by paying a heavy license fee. Education is not much attended to, and the people are exceedingly ignorant and bigoted. After the destruction of Carthage, Tripoli, then called Africa Syrtica, became a Roman province, and the 3 cities of Sabrata or Abrotonum, Ea, and Leptis Magna, under the name of Tripolis, formed a kind of federal union. It was conquered by the Vandals in the 5th century, and by the Mohammedans under the caliph Omar and his successor. After the caliphate was dissolved Tripoli became an independent state. The capital was taken by the king of Sicily in 1146, and retaken by Yakoub and the fortifications destroyed in 1184. It was afterward subject to Tunis till about 1510, when it was conquered by the Spaniards; and it was ceded by the emperor Charles V. to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem after their expulsion from Rhodes in 1530. The only stronghold then consisted of a castle, against which Sultan Solyman sent an expedition in

1551, when the knights were expelled, and the tract of country which at present constitutes the pashalic was annexed to Tripoli. The famous corsair Dragut, who had assisted at its capture, was made the first governor, and he initiated a system of piracy which was continued for centuries. The Christian nations and their commerce were the objects of attack, and all prisoners taken were sold into slavery. The capital was bombarded by the French fleet in 1683, when the pasha professed submission to Louis XIV. Notwithstanding this, however, and a war with the United States growing out of the practice, the Tripolitans continued their depredations upon foreign shipping even down to the year 1816, when a British force visited Tripoli and compelled the bey to renounce piracy and agree to treat all future prisoners according to the usages common among civilized nations. Though Tripoli is nominally a dependency of the Ottoman empire, the allegiance is principally due to the fact of the sultan being the chief of the Mohammedan religion; and the bey enters into treaties with foreign powers without consulting any superior. At first the governors or beys were appointed from Constantinople, and supported by a Turkish garrison; but a Moorish chief who was second in command rebelled successfully in 1713 and was proclaimed bey by the people. The government became hereditary in his family, and continued so till 1832, when, in consequence of more than ordinary oppression and tyranny, the last bey of the line was obliged to abdicate, and the Porte has since resumed its nominal authority. The chiefs of the interior acknowledge but slight allegiance, and keep on friendly terms with the bey merely because the commerce carried on through the capital is advantageous to them. The Arabs sometimes resort to open hostilities, and so late as 1855 they defeated the bey troops, and advanced to the immediate vicinity of the capital.-TRIPOLI (anc. (Ea), the capital, is situated on the Mediterranean, 600 m. S. E. from Algiers, and 300 m. S. from the coast of Sicily, in lat. 32° 54' N., long. 13° 11′ E.; pop. about 20,000. It stands upon a rocky promontory with the sea on the N. and E. sides, and is joined to the mainland on the S. and W. by a sandy plain. Toward the land it is defended by a wall flanked by bastions, and to seaward there are strong batteries and a castle at the S. E. point, which is the residence of the bey. The streets are exceedingly narrow and uneven, and the houses are generally mean and huddled together without regularity. They are nearly all one story high, without windows toward the streets, built of stones and mud, and whitewashed. Tripoli contains many mosques, 6 of which are handsome buildings, ornamented with numerous minarets. The roof of the great mosque is formed by a number of small cupolas, supported by 16 marble columns, supposed to have been taken from a Christian church. It is richly ornamented in

the interior, and said to have a very imposing effect. There are 2 or 3 Christian churches, a Franciscan convent, and several synagogues; and all religions are tolerated within the limits of the city. The pasha's residence is an immense building of very irregular appearance, having been constructed at different times. There are numerous caravansaries for the accommodation of travellers and merchants; and many of the public baths are built of marble and ornamented with cupolas. There are two bazaars, one of which is occupied by small shops, and the other by slave dealers, who bring the slaves from the interior. Woollen goods (particularly carpets), leather, and potash are manufactured. A great part of the trade of the state, as well as that of the interior of Africa, is centred in Tripoli. The traders are principally Jews, who have monopolies farmed out to them by the government. The foreign trade by sea is carried on chiefly with Malta, Marseilles, Leghorn, Trieste, and several towns of the Levant; and by land by means of caravans with all the surrounding countries as far as Morocco, Timbuctoo, and Mecca. Tripoli contains several remains of antiquity, the most remarkable of which is a triumphal arch constructed of large blocks of marble, erected in A. D. 164 to the Roman emperors M. Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Verus; the inscription is perfect, although the sculptures are greatly defaced. It is now used as a storehouse for goods. TRIPOLI, or TARABLOOS (anc. Tripolis), a seaport town of Syria, on the shore of the Mediterranean, in lat. 34° 26' N., long. 35° 49′ E., 48 m. N. by E. from Beyrout, and 94 m. N. W. from Damascus; pop. about 15,000, one half Greek Catholics. It stands at the foot of an offset of Mt. Lebanon, on a small triangular plain, with the sea at a little distance on the N. and S. sides. A hill on the E. is crowned by an old castle; and the town is divided into two parts by the Nahr Kadesha, that to the N. being the port. The harbor is sheltered by a projecting point of land, but is small and shallow, and is not considered safe. There are several mosques, most of which were formerly Christian churches, and are generally fine buildings. Tripoli is one of the neatest towns in Syria, and is surrounded by many fine gardens and groves of orange and other fruit trees; but the ground in the neighborhood is marshy, and the climate is in consequence unhealthy at certain seasons. It is a place of considerable trade, the exports consisting chiefly of silk, wool, cotton, tobacco, wax, oil, cochineal, galls, soap, and especially sponges, the fishery of which occupies a large number of the inhabitants. The commerce is chiefly in the hands of Greeks. French steamers touch here 4 times a month. It is the see of a Greek bishop, and the residence of several consuls.-Tripolis was an important maritime town of Phoenicia, and derived its name from being the colony of the three cities of Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus, each holding a separate quarter of it. It was taken by the crusaders in 1109,

who burned a valuable library, and erected it into a county for Raymond of Toulouse. TRIPOLI, an earthy substance, originally procured from Tripoli in Africa, used as a polishing material, of fine sharp grain, yellowish gray or whitish, burning white. It consists almost entirely of silica, and when examined by the microscope is found to be composed of the exuvia or skeletons of infusoria, the families of which are readily recognized. Specimens of it from Billen in Bohemia, Santafiora in Tuscany, the Isle of France, and Francisbad near Eger, have been examined by Ehrenberg. The substance has sometimes been confounded with the English rotten stone.

TRIPOLITZA, or TRIPOLIS, a town of Greece, in the Morea, capital of the nome of Arcadia, 22 m. S. W. from Argos; pop. 8,800. It is situated in a plain 3,000 feet above the sea, and owes its name, signifying triple city, to its being the modern representative of the cities of Mantinea, Tegea, and Pallantium, which occupied the same plain. Before the revolution it was the residence of a Turkish pasha and capital of the Morea, and had 20,000 inhabitants. The Greeks took it in 1821 and put the inhabitants to the sword, 8,000 male Turks having perished, beside women and children. In revenge for this outrage, Ibrahim Pasha, having occupied it in 1825, destroyed literally every house in the place. It has since been partially rebuilt. The ruins of Mantinea may be seen at Paleopoli, about 8 m. to the N., and of Tegea at Piali, nearly the same distance S. (See MANTINEA, and TEGEA.) Pallantium probably occupied the site of Tripolitza itself.

TRIPTOLEMUS, in Greek mythology, a son of Oceanus and Terra, or, according to another tradition, of Celeus, king of Attica, and Neæra, also called Metanira or Polymnia. He was born at Eleusis, and while still young he was cured of a dangerous illness by Ceres, who had been hospitably entertained by his father while engaged in the search for her daughter. To repay the kindness of Celeus, the goddess took especial care of Triptolemus, and put him on the fire in order to burn out whatever particles of mortality he had derived from his parents. But his mother, discovering her, prevented the accomplishment of her design. Ceres, unable to make him immortal, taught him agriculture, how to sow corn and to make bread, and also presented him with her dragon chariot, with which he rode over all the earth, distributing corn to all its inhabitants. Afterward he reigned at Eleusis. Triptolemus was the great hero of the Eleusinian mysteries.

TRISMEGISTUS. See HERMES TRISMEGISTUS. TRISSINO, GIOVANNI GIORGIO, an Italian author, born in Vicenza in 1478, died in Rome in 1550. He studied the Greek language under Chalcondylas, and became also an elegant Latin and Italian writer. At a mature age he was employed by Popes Leo X. and Clement VII. upon several diplomatic missions. He wrote Sofonisba, the first Italian regular tragedy;

L'Italia liberata dai Goti, an epic in blank verse; and La poetica, a treatise on poetical art. To his suggestion is attributed the present method of writing the v and j of the Roman alphabet differently from the u and i with which they were before confounded. He also endeavored to introduce distinct signs for the different sounds of o and e.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA, the largest of a cluster of three islands in the S. Atlantic ocean, claimed by Great Britain, lying S. S. E. from St. Helena, in lat. 37° 6′ S., long. 12° 2′ W. The others are called Nightingale and Inaccessible islands, and can only be approached in a calm. Tristan da Cunha is about 20 m. in circumference, and rises abruptly from the water on 3 sides to a height of 8,326 feet. On the N. side an extensive plain stretches along the base of the mountain, which is an extinct volcano. Vessels touching can procure supplies. It was named after a Portuguese navigator who discovered it in 1506.

TRITON, in Greek and Roman mythology, a marine deity, the son of Neptune. He was represented as having the form of a man above and that of a fish below, and as bearing a conch-shell trumpet, the sound of which soothed the turbulence of the waters. Tritons are mentioned in the plural as identical with the fabulous mermen of the northern nations.

TRITON, the proper name of the tailed batrachians of the old genus triton (Laur.), generally called newts or water salamanders; they all belong to the northern hemisphere, and their species are most numerous in North America. The tail is depressed and adapted for swimming in most, though many are not strictly aquatic, but pass much of their life on the land, some visiting the water only during the breeding season; indeed, by reference to the article SALAMANDER it will be seen that the distinction into terrestrial and aquatic species is very indefinite, species with either of these habits being found in one genus. In the breeding season, in the spring, the males acquire a fin-like fringe along the back and tail and membranous appendages to the toes; the species are difficult to distinguish on account of the varieties of sex, age, and season. Reproduction takes place by means of eggs, which are fecundated before they are deposited, and the young resemble tadpoles in form and gills. The most carefully studied species is the great triton or water newt of Great Britain (T. palustris, Flem.), about 6 inches long, of which the tail is about; this species will suffice for the generic description. The body is naked, but covered with warty tubercles, and with glandular pores behind and over eyes and along sides; toes without nails, 4 anterior and 5 posterior; the dorsal and caudal crests separate; tongue slightly free on sides, and more free and pointed behind; palate with a double lon gitudinal series of teeth; no parotids nor glands along the back. The smooth-skinned species, without lateral pores and with a continuous

dorsal and caudal crest, have been noticed under EFT. The head is flattened, nose rounded, gape large, teeth numerous and small, and the neck hardly distinct from the head and body. It is common in ponds and ditches, and one of the most aquatic of the family, swimming by means of the tail, the legs being turned back against the body; the legs are used as balancers in the water, and for a slow and feeble creeping on land; the skin comes off in shreds in the water, and is swallowed. It is said not to be able to breed until the 3d year, and to pass the entire period between the end of the tadpole state and the breeding season on the land, the young in winter hiding in solitary holes in the ground, and the adults hibernating in company rolled together in a ball a few inches in diameter. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of aquatic plants which are folded around them, one egg to each leaf; the anterior lobes of the branchia are modified into prehensile organs by which the tadpole fixes itself to bodies under water, being absorbed when the anterior feet are sufficiently developed; the young, which are born in June or July, remain, according to Bell, without much change till the following spring, when they acquire legs and leave the water, their parents in a few weeks resuming a terrestrial existence. In the water they are voracious, feeding on aquatic animals, insects and larvæ, the tadpoles of the frog, and even those of their own species. They are noted for their tenacity of life under mutilation and exposure to severe cold, and for their power of reproducing lost parts; yet with all this tenacity of life, it is remarkable, says Prince Musignano, that they should die in violent convulsions on having a little salt sprinkled upon the body. It is blackish or light brown above with darker round spots, and bright reddish orange below with round black spots, and the sides dotted with white.— The common many-spotted triton of the Atlantic states (T. dorsalis, Harlan; genus notophthalmus, Raf.) is about 4 inches long, of which the tail is one half; it is olive or greenish brown above, with a row of circular vermilion spots on each side, and below orange studded with small black dots; eyes prominent, with flame-colored iris; posterior limbs twice as large as anterior; it is eminently aquatic, and dies soon out of water from the drying of the skin; it is torpid only in the severest weather; it is found from Maine to Georgia, forming a very lively and interesting animal for the fresh water aquarium, and easily obtained. The tiger triton (T. tigrinus, Holbr.; genus ambystoma, Tschudi) is 61 inches long, bluish black above and on limbs, with irregular markings of lemon color, and below ashy with dusky yellow blotches; it is found in the New England and middle states. The black triton (T. niger, Holbr.; genus desmognathus, Baird) is 4 inches long, black above, with a tinge of blue, and purplish below; it is found from Massachusetts to Florida and Louisiana, and is said

to be entirely aquatic. The great triton (T. ingens, Holbr.; genus ambystoma, Tsch.) is 10 to 13 inches long, bluish slate above, with irregular pale ash blotches, throat dark brown, and abdomen slate-colored; this is the largest species, eminently aquatic, and found in the western states.-The name of TRITON is also given to a genus of gasteropod mollusks of the murex family, having a conical and elongated shell, spirally convoluted. The T. variegatum (Lam.), 12 to 16 inches long, from the Indian seas, is the well known sea conch or trumpet of the god Triton; this species, as well as the T. australe (Lam.), is used by the Polynesians as a horn; by blowing in the shell through a hole in the apex, a loud and mellow sound is produced.

TRIUMPH (Lat. triumphus), generally, a solemn procession for the purpose of celebrating a victory. Although honors of this kind have been bestowed from time immemorial by warlike races upon victorious generals, they became nowhere else so closely identified with national habits and institutions as among the ancient Romans, who encouraged the observance of them as a stimulus to martial exploits. Hence a triumph may be defined as the highest military honor that could be obtained by a Roman general, who entered the city in a chariot drawn by 4 horses, preceded by his captives and spoils and followed by his army, with which escort he passed along the Via Sacra, and ascending to the capitol sacrificed a bull to Jupiter. A triumph was granted by the senate to a general who had gained important successes by land or sea, if he had already held one of the great offices of state; if the victory had been gained under his auspices and with his troops; if the advantage had been positive and the number of enemies slain in a single battle at least 5,000, and if it had been gained over a foreign enemy and not in a civil war; if the national dominion had been extended, and not merely recovered or relieved from the presence of the enemy; and if the war had been actually concluded so as to permit of the army's being withdrawn from the conquered country. Occasional deviations from these conditions are recorded, but they were in the main strictly observed. The general claiming the triumph having sent to the senate an account of his exploits, that body, if the intelligence proved satisfactory, generally decreed a public thanks giving, called a supplicatio; and at the conclusion of the war he met them without the city walls to urge his pretensions in person. The right of the senate to bestow triumphs, however, was not an exclusive prerogative, instances being on record in which the comitia of the tribes assumed it, and even where generals triumphed in defiance of the senate and the people. But a disappointed general commonly contented himself with going through the forms of a triumph on the Alban mount. The consent of the senate having been obtained, and a sum of money voted to defray the necessary expenses, the

successful general was invested with the imperium within the city for the day of triumph, until which occasion he remained outside of the walls. The procession, at first simple and impressive, was in later times transformed into a pageant of extraordinary splendor, and minute regulations prescribed the arrangement of its various parts. The populace in holiday attire were present along the whole route, altars and temples were adorned with garlands, and a general festival prevailed. The general himself, attired in a gold-embroidered robe and flowered tunic, and bearing in one hand a laurel bough and in the other a sceptre, stood upright in a circular chariot drawn by 4 horses, in which was also stationed a slave, who, according to some authorities, reminded him amid the acclamations of the multitude that he was but mortal. The inhuman practice also prevailed of putting to death several of the captive leaders while the procession was ascending the Capitoline hill. After the sacrifice was performed at the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the general deposited his laurel wreath in the lap of the god, and the ceremonies of the day ended with a public banquet. Naval triumphs were similar in character, but fewer in number, and generally on a smaller scale. After the overthrow of the republic, the emperors, in virtue of their authority as commanders-inchief of the armies of the state, claimed the exclusive right of celebrating triumphs; and until A. D. 534, when Belisarius entered Constantinople in triumph after the overthrow of the Vandal kingdom in Africa, no subject had for more than 5 centuries enjoyed that distinction. This was the 350th triumph in Roman history, and the last ever celebrated. A lesser kind of triumph, called an ovation (ovatio) from the practice of sacrificing a sheep (ovis) instead of a bull, was granted to a general whose success had been considerable, though not of a character to entitle him to a triumph. In such cases the victor entered the city on foot, attended by a less imposing retinue, a conspicuous feature of which was a numerous band of flute players. TRIUMPHAL ARCH. See ARCH.

TRIUMPHAL COLUMN. See COLUMN. TRIUMVIRATE, an office filled coördinately by 3 persons. Several magistracies of this description were recognized in the Roman government, of which the most important was that for the regulation of public affairs-triumviri reipublicæ constituendæ. Though magistrates with this title are thought to have been appointed as early as 360 B. C., there is no certain mention of them till toward the close of the republic, when the supreme power was shared between Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, as triumvirs. They received the office for 5 years in 43 B. C., and upon the expiration of that term for 5 years more. The coalition between Julius Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus, in 60 B. C., is often called a triumvirate, but improperly, as they were never invested with any office under that title. Administration by tri

umvirs was apparently much favored by Roman legislators. A triumvirate was instituted in 292 B. C. of officers to inquire into all capital crimes (triumviri capitales); another superintended the formation of every colony (triumviri coloniæ deducenda); another was charged with the prevention of fires, and went the rounds of the city every night for that purpose (triumviri nocturni); and there were many other triumvirates of minor importance, either permanent or temporary.

TROCHEE (Gr. Tpexw, to run), in poetry, a foot consisting of a long and a short syllable. It is also called choreus, and is especially used in verse requiring rapid movement, from which circumstance it derives its name. Trochaic verse is generally employed in lines of 2, 4, and 6 feet, and the trochee (- -) interchanges easily with the dactyl (~~), tribrach (~~~), anapæst (~~), and spondee (- -). In addition to the trochaic verse of 2, 4, and 6 feet, known to the ancients and the moderns, the latter have also employed the trochaic verse of 5 and of 7 feet, although the tetrameter is the one principally in use.

TROZEN, an ancient city of Greece, situated in a fertile plain in a territory of the same name, forming the S. E. corner of Argolis. It was founded probably by the Ionians, and according to Homer was subject at the time of the Trojan war to Argos, from which it afterward received a Doric colony. Subsequently it became a prominent maritime city, founded Halicarnassus and Myndus in Caria, and probably Pæstum in Magna Græcia, and was conspicuous in the wars with Persia, its harbor being the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet after the sea fight at Artemisium. During the Peloponnesian, Corinthian, and other wars, it adhered to the side of Sparta. After the establishment of the Macedonian rule over Greece it was in the hands of various contending parties, and continued a place of some importance until the time of Pausanias, who describes its public buildings in detail; but after this period we have no account of its history. The ruins of the ancient city lie near the village of Damala, and consist principally of Hellenic foundations with Frankish or Byzantine superstructures. In 1827 the Greek national assembly was held here, at which Capo d'Istria was chosen president for 7 years. Trozen is celebrated as the birthplace of the Attic hero Theseus.

TROGLODYTES (Gr. Tрwyλodurys, from тρwyλŋ, a cave, and duw, to enter), the name given by the ancients to tribes of men who resided in caves. Several such are mentioned by ancient writers as inhabiting parts of Ethiopia, upper Egypt, the borders of the Red sea, Moesia, Mauritania, and the northern part of the Caucasus. At the present time, in part of Arabia, the mountainous region encompassing the wadys are filled with caves, which have been converted into permanent habitations by half savage tribes of Bedouins, and it is probable that these belong to the same race as the troglodytic

population of Ptolemy and other Greek geographers. In the early history of the Christian church the name was also applied to certain heretics, who, rejected by all parties, held their meetings in caves. In natural history, Linnæus placed the African orang-outang under the genus homo with the specific name of troglodytes, next to homo sapiens; and this is the troglodytes niger of Geoffroy and the simia troglodytes of Blumenbach. The term is now applied to a genus which includes the chimpanzee and the gorilla, and also to a genus of the troglodytina or wren family of birds.

TROGON, and COUROUCOU, names given to the fissirostral birds of the family trogenida, the second name being derived from their peculiar melancholy cry. The bill is short, strong, curved, broader than high, triangular seen from above, with the margins and tip usually serrated, the base provided with tufts of bristles, and the gape wide; wings moderate and rounded; tarsi short and weak, more or less feathered; toes of unequal length, and arranged in 2 pairs, the inner being turned backward. There are about 40 species in the tropical regions of both hemispheres, but especially numerous in South America; they frequent thick and damp forests, feeding on insects, which they seize on the wing or pick from the bark of trees, and on fruits and berries; they are most active in morning and evening. A few live in the islands of the Indian archipelago, belonging to the genus harpactes (Swains.), having the edges of the bill smooth; and one genus (apaloderma, Swains.) in Africa, with only the lower mandible serrated; the American may be distinguished from the old world species by their barred tail. Though the neck and feet seem too short for the bulky body, the plumage is usually beautiful, often with metallic brilliancy, the splendor of their appearance being increased by the elegant and long tail. The eggs, 2 to 4, are laid in the holes of rotten trees, and several broods are raised in a year. The species vary in size from a thrush to s magpie; it is rare to obtain good specimens, as they frequent the highest trees of the thickest forests, and when shot lose many of the soft and delicate feathers by the fall to the ground; the skin is very tender, and renders the operation of skinning so difficult that the natives dry the body with the feathers on.-In the genus trogon (Mohr.) the 1st quill is short and the 4th the longest. The red-bellied trogon (T. curucui, Linn.) is about a foot long, green above, red below, with the throat black, and the coverts and tail striped with the same; it is a native of Mexico. The peacock or splendid trogon (calurus resplendens, Swains.) has the edges of the bill smooth, the wing coverts long and curved, and the upper tail coverts greatly prolonged, entirely concealing the tail; it is larger than the last named, and the middle tail coverts are 3 to 3 feet in length; it is of a beautiful bronzed and golden green above and on the throat, and scarlet below; it is found in Mexico and Cen