however, has been thus completed.-Many interesting circumstances were connected with the construction of this tunnel. For some time the excavation was in a stratum of clay and unattended with serious difficulties. These commenced on breaking into a fissure filled with sand and gravel, the passing of which occupied 32 days. With the close of the year 1826, the first year's work in tunnelling, the progress was 350 feet. The floor of the tunnel was made to slope down at the rate of 2 feet in 100, in order to give sufficient depth of ground in the middle of the river above the brickwork, which however was not after all more than 10 feet. Even near the shore it was found that there was much danger of the river bursting through into the tunnel; portions of the bed frequently settled, and to fill the cavities thus formed large bags of clay were sunk in the river. Constant examinations were made of the bottom by men descending in a diving bell; and it happened that a shovel and hammer lost from the diving bell were afterward found among the earth which broke into the tunnel. The first serious accident occurred on May 12, 1827, at a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the water rushing in with such violence that within 15 minutes the tunnel was filled and the men narrowly escaped with their lives. On examining the break with a diving bell, the arches and shield were seen to be undisturbed; and the displacement of earth was estimated at 25,000 cubic feet. The method adopted to prevent further influx of water was to cover the hole with tarpaulings, and fill in bags of clay, of which about 3,000 were used, each containing a ton. The water was then pumped out, and on June 27 the tunnel was again entered; but it was not until the end of September that matters were restored, so that the shield again began to move forward. On Jan. 12, 1828, 605 feet in, and just under the middle of the river, the water burst in so suddenly that the tunnel was almost immediately filled, and 6 workmen were drowned. Mr. Brunel, the only other person in the tunnel at the time, had a most narrow escape, being swept forward by the flood into the shaft, up which he was carried as it filled with water. The cavity in the river was filled with 4,000 tons of clay in bags, and the water was again pumped out, so that the tunnel was reentered on April 12. The funds of the company being now exhausted, a solid wall was built across the extreme end of the archways, and the work was abandoned for 7 years, during which time one of the archways was kept lighted with gas and open for exhibition. The government finally agreed to furnish the funds required, and the work was again taken up, but advanced very slowly on account of the increasing difficulties. Three more breaks occurred, and one life was lost. In Jan. 1841, the tunnel had reached the opposite bank, when the work in it was stopped until the shaft at this end could be completed. This shaft was made upon similar plans to the

other, only with a slight taper from 53 feet diameter at top to 55 feet diameter at the bottom, in order to prevent its being jammed in descending. A driftway from this shaft reached the tunnel on Aug. 13, and toward the last of November the middle frames of the shield came up to the walls of the shaft, through which they were passed in the same manner as they had passed through the ground, and the brickwork of the tunnel was soon after closed up with that of the shaft. The tunnel was opened for foot passengers on March 12, 1843. Its total length between the shafts is 1,200 feet. It was originally proposed to complete it with a carriage road winding around the shafts at a gradual descent; but it has not been deemed expedient to incur the additional expense which this would involve, and the tunnel has been used only for foot passengers who pay a toll of 1 penny each. Its total cost has been £454,714, of which £180,000 was subscribed by the original shareholders or was raised upon debentures. The receipts arising from the tolls and the renting of stalls in the cross arches scarcely amount to enough to keep the work in repair and good order.

TUNNY, a marine fish of the mackerel family, and genus thynnus (Cuv.). The body is elongated and compressed, with a slender tail keeled in the middle, and with 2 oblique cutaneous folds at the base of the caudal fin on each side; mouth large, with the teeth small, awl-shaped, in a single row on each jaw, and fine and crowded on the vomer and palate; there are 2 dorsals, near together, the posterior followed by 9 or 10 finlets opposite those of the anal fin; scales largest around the pectoral region, forming a kind of corslet, on the anterior part of the back, and along the lateral line; cerebellum remarkably large, as would be expected in such an active fish. The common tunny of Europe (T. vulgaris, Cuv.) attains a length of 15 to 20 feet, and a weight of more than 1,000 lbs. ; it is dark blue above, the corslet lighter, sides of head white, and below grayish white spotted with silvery; 1st dorsal, pectorals, and ventrals black, the other fins mostly flesh-colored; the pectorals are scytheshaped, and the length of the body. It is a very active and voracious fish, feeding on herring and the small migratory species; it is very abundant at the E. and W. ends of the Mediterranean, and in its narrowest portions generally, approaching the shores in summer in large shoals for the purpose of spawning; at this time they are captured in large nets arranged in a funnel-like form, into the wide mouth of which the fish enter, and, being gradually driven to the narrower end, are killed by lances and harpoons; a single line of nets often extends more than a quarter of a mile, costing about $6,000. Its flesh is highly esteemed, being very solid, almost like meat, as firm as that of the sturgeon, but finer flavored; it is red before it is cooked, and is served at table in a great variety of ways, in all of which

it is considered delicious and wholesome; for this purpose its capture has been energetically prosecuted from the earliest antiquity. It is found also in the Atlantic and in the North sea. The ancient Byzantium was especially enriched by the tunny fishery, the gulf here, according to Cuvier, having received the name of the Golden Horn from the wealth derived from the capture of this fish, though Gibbon gives a different explanation of this name; even at the present day these waters swarm with the tunny, but the indolent Turks pay little attention to this source of food and wealth. The Phoenicians established a fishery at the other end of the Mediterranean, on the coast of Spain, at a much earlier period, and representations of the tunny are often seen on their coins and medals. A salted preparation of this fish was called by the Romans salsamentum Sardinicum. The principal fishery of the present time is carried on in Sicily and Sardinia. The tunny is very timid, and easily driven by loud noises to its own destruction.-The American tunny (T. secundo-dorsalis, Storer), called also horse mackerel and albicore, attains a length of 9 to 12 feet; it is nearly black above, silvery on the sides, and white below; gill covers and pectorals silvery gray; iris golden; ventrals black above and white below; finlets mostly yellow; the 2d dorsal is much higher than the 1st, anal further back than in the European tunny, and the pectorals shorter. It is found from New York to Nova Scotia, coming into Massachusetts bay about the middle of June and remaining through September; it gets very fat by the end of August, and is then valuable for the oil, which is obtained by boiling the head and abdomen; a single fish will thus yield about 20 gallons; it is taken by the harpoon, and affords very exciting sport, as the fish is active, strong, and tenacious of life; it feeds on menhaden and other small shoal fish; it is hated by the fishermen for its injury to their nets, and is rarely used here except for mackerel bait; the flesh, however, resembles lean pork, with a fine mackerel taste, and in time will probably be frequently seen in the markets; it is not a very common fish.-The tunny of the tropics (T. pelamys, Cuv.), with other allied genera of the family, has been described under BONITO.

TUNSTALL, or TONSTALL, CUTHBERT, an English prelate, born at Haldeford, Yorkshire, in 1474 or 1475, died at Lambeth palace, Nov. 18, 1559. He was educated at Oxford and Cambridge, became a fellow of the latter university, afterward studied at Padua, where he received the degree of LL.D., and was made rector of Harrow-on-the-Hill in 1511, and in 1515 archdeacon of Chester. In 1516 he was appointed master of the rolls, and sent to Brussels as commissioner to the emperor Charles V., with whom he concluded two treaties of alliance and commerce. After being prebendary of York and Salisbury, and dean of the latter, he was in 1522 made bishop of London, and in 1523 lord privy seal, and during the next

6 years was twice ambassador to Spain and France. In 1530 he was translated to the bishopric of Durham. He soon after resigned the privy seal, but among all the changes effected in the church by Henry VIII., and those introduced by Edward VI., he kept his place as bishop, and was also a member of the privy council and of the king's council in the north. Through the influence of the duke of Northumberland he was finally deprived of his bishopric in Oct. 1552, and committed to the tower. On the accession of Mary he was reinstated; but refusing to take the oath of supremacy on Elizabeth's accession, he was again deprived in July, 1559, and remained the guest of Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, till his death. wrote In Laudem Matrimonii (4to., London, 1518); De Arte Supputandi Libri IV. (4to., 1522), a treatise on arithmetic, often reprinted; "Compendium and Synopsis," an abridgment of Aristotle's "Ethics" (8vo., Paris, 1554); “A Defence of Predestination" (4to., Antwerp, 1555); and a volume of prayers (8vo., 1558).

He

TUOLUMNE, an E. co. of California, bounded N. by the Stanislaus river and E. by the Sierra Nevada mountains, and drained by the Tuolumne river; area, about 1,500 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 16,229. The surface is level in the W. part, and in the E. mountainous and covered with excellent timber, which is largely exported; the soil of the valleys is very fertile. The productions in 1858 were 10,740 bushels of wheat, 70,080 of barley, and 19,260 of oats. There were 30 quartz mills, 4 grist mills, and 22 saw mills. It is one of the most important mining counties of the state. Capital, Sonora.

TUPELO, an aboriginal name applied to several species of nyssa, According to Prof. Gray, it belongs to the cornacea or dogwood family, comprising both trees and shrubs with simple, entire, or rarely toothed leaves, destitute of stipules; perfect or else polygamous flowers, succeeded by berries or drupes of one or two cells. The species most diffused throughout the country seems to be the N. multiflora of Wangenheim. (See BLACK GUM.) The large tupelo (N. uniflora, Walter) becomes a large tree in the swamps of North Carolina and southward; its leaves are 4 to 6 inches in length, long-petioled, ovate or oblong, entire or sometimes sharply toothed, downy beneath, or occasionally slightly cordate; the fertile blossoms borne on a single peduncle; the fruit oblong, blue, an inch or more long. Its timber is soft, and its roots so spongy and light that they are employed as buoys to fishing nets. The water tupelo (N. aquatica, Linn.) is likewise a large tree, found growing on the edges of ponds and in the pine barrens from North Carolina to Florida; its leaves are short-petioled, varying from lanceolate to orbicular obtuse, slightly cordate; the fertile flowers 1 or 2 on short peduncles; drupes oval, blue. The timber is of little value except for fuel. The Ogeechee lime (N. capitata, Walter) is a small tree, rarely exceeding 30 feet in height; its

European dominions of the sultan. 4. The Mongolian branch, lying yet further east. The Mongol race, since its wonderful career of conquest in the 12th and 13th centuries-in which, however, Turkish tribes were the chief agents -has shrunk again within its ancient borders, and lives in insignificance under Chinese domination. 5. The Tungusian branch; of this, the principal race is the Mantchoo, which has held China in subjection during the past two centuries. It has been sought to extend still further the boundaries of this immense family, by attaching to it the Dravidian races of southern India, and even by tying on all the other Asiatic peoples (excepting the Chinese), the Malays and Polynesians, and the North American tribes; but such sweepingly synthetic classification is, in the present stage of linguistic ethnology, to be regarded as utterly unscientific. Even the combination of the branches above stated into one family has but recently been made with confidence.-As the Indo-European languages are much more varied and diverse in their development than the Semitic, so they are, in their turn, vastly exceeded in this respect by the idioms now under consideration. The law of linguistic connection prevailing among the latter is quite peculiar; between tribes confessedly of near kin exist differences of linguistic material even in cardinal points, such as the pronouns, numerals, and important affixes of derivation. A marked similarity of linguistic method, however, runs through them all, and helps to stamp them as kindred. They are all formed on what is called the agglutinative type; that is to say, the root or theme everywhere maintains its form almost unchanged, and all formative syllables are suffixed, never prefixed, to it; and they enter with it into no close and intimate union, giving rise to forms which are accepted by the mind, without analysis, as signs for the complex idea; they remain in the condition of loosely appended elements. There are no varieties and irregularities of nominal and verbal flexion; each language has but a single declension and a single conjugation. The plural of declension is formed by a pluralizing particle, to which the same case-endings are then attached as in the singular. Grammatical gender is a thing unknown. The cases are numerous. Prepositions always follow the words they govern; as, indeed, it is a general rule that the governed word precedes the governing. Words connecting sentences-relatives and conjunctions-are hardly employed at all. A marked phonetic peculiarity running through all the dialects is the law of harmonic sequence of vowels; the vowels are divided into two classes, heavy and light, and within the same word only heavy or only light vowels can follow one another; the vowel of a suffix, or those of a series of suffixes, changing to conform themselves to the character of that of the root. The languages are rich in harmonious and well developed vocabularies, so far as the sound goes, and they

abound in nice distinctions of certain kinds; yet their rank in the general scale of language is but a low one; they are deficient in sharp distinction of the principal grammatical categories, and awkward, cumbrous, and incomplete in the expression of thought. This character belongs to them in varying degree; the Mantchoo dialects are the poorest of all; and the Mongol do not much surpass them; the Tartaric idioms hold the middle rank; the tongues of the Finnish branch, particularly the Finnish proper and the Hungarian, possess a marked superiority to the others. Most of the languages of the family are known only in their present condition, having no monuments by which their history can be followed back into the past. A properly national literature none of the branches has ever had, if we except the mythic and legendary songs of the Finns, recently collected from the mouths of the people, and combined to form the Kalevala, and the mostly lyric popular songs of the Hungarians; but even some of the remoter tribes have, under the influence and by the aid of foreign teachers, acquired the arts of writing, and have brought forth religious and historical works, while the Hungarian and the Turkish have developed important literatures. It is also asserted within a few years past, that on the cuneiform monuments of Mesopotamia and Persia is represented, in the inscriptions of the third order, an Ugrian dialect, and that we have there authentic evidence and remains of an ancient Ugrian civilization, which is even asserted to have preceded and formed the basis for that of the other races in the same region. These results of a small number of investigators are not yet fully accepted by scholars in general; if they shall prove true, they will constitute a fact of the highest consequence in the history of this family, and indeed in that of the human race, and will modify many of the hitherto prevailing opinions of ethnologists.-Respecting the name by which the whole family should be called, there is great diversity of opinion. By some it is named from one of its principal branches, or from more than one, and is styled the Mongolian, the Tartaric, the FinnoTartaric, the Finno-Tungusic race, &c. Others entitle it the Altaic, from the mountain chain which is regarded as the original home of the tribes, and the starting point of their migra tions; or, adding the name of the other mountain chain which furnished a new basis for the dispersion of some of its most important members, they know it as the Uralo-Altaic, or UgroAltaic. A common appellation, also, and one which has as much in its favor and as little against it as any other, is Scythic or Scythian, taken from the name given by the Greeks to the wild tribes of the north-east, who were probably, at least in great part, of this race. The authority of Max Müller has recently given currency to the name Turanian, which stands at the head of our article, although we are far from regarding it as the one most worthy of

acceptance. It is derived from the traditions of the Iranian or Persian race, in whose national recollections the contest between Iran and Turan, the Aryan race and its Tartar neighbors and foes, is an element of prime importance. Writers upon this whole family of nations are especially Rémusat, Recherches sur les langues Tartares (Paris, 1820); Rask, in several of his philological works; Schott, in numerous memoirs published by the Berlin academy, especially Ueber das Altaische- oder Finnisch-Tartarische Sprachengeschlecht (1849); Prichard, in vol. iii. of his "Researches into the Physical History of Mankind;" Castrén, in a series of grammars, essays, accounts of travel, &c. (St. Petersburg, 1853-'8); and Max Müller, "Letter on the Turanian Languages,' in Bunsen's "Philosophy of Universal History," vol. i., and "Lectures on the Science of Language" (London, 1861).

TURBAN (Turk. tulbend or dulbend), a covering for the head worn among most eastern peoples. It varies much in shape among various nations and classes; its usual form is that of a roll of cloth twisted around a cap. The Turks in recent times have generally abandoned it for the fez or red skull cap. The turban of the sultan was ornamented with three heron's feathers and a great quantity of gems, and an officer called the dulbend aga was appointed especially to take care of it. The grand vizier was entitled to wear two heron's feathers in his turban, and inferior officers one. The emirs were distinguished by green turbans.

TURBINE (Fr., a shell of spiral form), a submerged, horizontal water wheel, of the class of reaction wheels, with curved vertical buckets or floats, and the revolution of which without and around a fixed horizontal disk, having upon it guides giving direction to the impelling body of water, is made to turn a vertical axis or shaft running through the common centre of the wheel and disk, and by connections from this shaft to give motion to machinery of various kinds. The earlier, and until recently the more common forms of water wheel, were characterized in general by their having the axis horizontal, and by deriving their motion from simple weight or momentum of the water, or from both combined. Since, however, a vertical axis will, in the case of mills for grinding, serve to give motion directly or very nearly so to a millstone, the means of securing effective horizontal wheels with vertical axes have, especially in the grain-producing provinces of France and other parts of Europe, long engaged attention. In the arrangement known in England as "Barker's mill," a horizontal hollow tube receiving and discharging water from a hollow vertical shaft which turns with it, and the ends of the tube opening for discharge in opposite directions, the pressure due to combined effect of height of column and centrifugal force is relieved at each opening, but felt upon the side of the tube opposed to it; the reaction or recoil upon these

surfaces gives to the tube and hence to the shaft a rapid revolution; but the form is seldom or never used in practice. The "spoon wheel," used in France, consists of a number of separate curved blades diverging horizontally from the upright axis, upon which a descending stream of water is directed; it gives a fair percentage of work, where the supply and fall are not great. Somewhat similar to both these in principle is the turbine, invented, or perhaps first brought to effective and economical working, by Fourneyron, about 1884. (See FOURNEYRON.) In the employment of the turbine there are two reservoirs or bodies of water at different levels, the wheel and disk already referred to being submerged in the lower of these, and the water, conducted by a flume or large tube from the upper reservoir, is made to descend vertically through a hollow cylinder upon the disk or fixed and solid circular plate lying beneath this; the cylinder not reaching down quite to this disk, there is a lateral circular opening of no great depth completely around and between the two. Immediately without and enclosing or facing this circular opening is the depth (at its inner periphery) of the horizontal wheel, which is thus annular in form, and turns round and without the disk and cylinder. This wheel consists of an upper and under crown, horizontal and of annular form, in the open space between which (usually less, or not much more, than a foot in total depth) are fixed vertically, and running from crown to crown, curved floats or buckets, in form corresponding to those of Poncelet's undershot wheel. The upright fixed guides upon the disk direct the issuing stream of water against the curved floats of the wheel; and as it emerges on all sides, it acts upon all the floats at the same moment and constantly, moving the wheel by one horizontal component of the several pressures on these in the direction of their convex surfaces; a strong circular plate from the wheel descends slightly below the disk, attaching to and moving the solid vertical axis. This axis rises through the cylinder, emerging within a suitable box from the water space to the mechanism above. Its lower pivot is sometimes rested upon a stout lever of the second kind, and near the fulcrum, by connections with which lever the wheel can be raised or lowered alongside of the opening for the escaping water. A movable hollow cylinder, called the regulating gate, can be raised or lowered along the fixed cylinder, so as to diminish when desired the depth of opening and volume of discharge upon the wheel; and in some forms, to prevent the carrying round of dead water in the wheel above this opening, the space between the crowns is divided by a succession of horizontal plates into a number of compartments, so many of which only will be filled as correspond to the opening. The guides upon the fixed disk are also curved in a manner similar to that of the buckets, but in the opposite direction; the result is that the water does not