escape radially, but tangentially, and in such course as to strike the buckets almost perpendicularly, thus very greatly increasing its action upon the wheel. In Callon's turbine, the flow into the wheel is regulated by a series of sliding shutters, portions or the whole of which can be let down to cover the opening to the wheel. In Fontaine's improved form, shown in the London exhibition, 1851, the wheel has its floats curving horizontally, and the water descends nearly vertically upon these, but directed against them, its horizontal component of pressure taking effect; this form has some peculiar advantages. The turbines of Jonval and some others are also well known; and the name is sometimes given to Thomson's externally fed wheel, and to others differing from the more usual forms. Fourneyron's turbine, under good conditions, utilized a larger percentage of the force of water than the best ordinary water wheels, namely, from 75 to 80 per cent.; the performance of Fontaine's and of Jonval's is about the same. Among obvious advantages of turbine wheels are these: 1, they occupy little space; 2, the action on the wheel is uniform and uninterrupted; 3, the wheel turning, usually, completely within water, and the pressure outward on the floats being the same in all directions, there is no strain or increased friction in a particular direction upon the axis; 4, turning with great speed, it may directly carry the millstone in flouring mills; 5, being submerged, its performance is uninterrupted by ice, and is little affected by floods or by drought so long as the wheel is covered; 6, it utilizes a larger percentage of the power than ordinary wheels; and 7, its efficiency does not decrease in the same ratio with the velocity, when the height or volume of water is reduced: thus, a wheel at Sainte-Blaise, diameter 22 inches, under a fall of 350 feet, gave 40 horse power, equal to 4 of the whole power of the water; while another at Gisors, with a fall of 3 feet, gave, with one of 2 feet,, and of 1 foot, 3, of the whole power. In the United States, water wheels of the ordinary forms were almost exclusively in use, and among the large manufacturing establishments in New England entirely so, until the year 1844, the breast wheel being regarded as the most efficient practicable. In 1843 Mr. Ellwood Morris communicated to the "Journal of the Franklin Institute," in which several articles in relation to the French reaction wheels had previously appeared, a translation of Morin's "Experiments on Turbines," with an account of some experiments also on two turbines constructed from his own designs; the useful effect of one of these was .75. In 1844 Mr. Uriah A. Boyden, a hydraulic engineer, of Massachusetts, produced for the Appleton company's cotton mills in Lowell a turbine involving several improvements, and of which the efficiency was .78 of the power. In 1846 he had constructed upon his designs, embracing further improvements, three turbines

of about 190 horse power each, for the same company; the mean maximum effective power of two of these, carefully tested, was .88 of the power of the water expended-a remarkable advance upon all previous results; and these turbines have continued to perform satisfactorily. The chief features of difference of these wheels from the original one of Fourneyron may be briefly summed up as follows: The flume conducting the water to the turbine is in form of an inverted truncated cone, the water introduced above on one side of the axis of the turbine and cone, and by a gradual curve, so that the water descends with almost no loss of power, save from friction, acquiring an increasing velocity and a spiral movement in the direction of the revolution of the wheel; the guides are accordingly a little inclined backward, so that the water shall meet their edges only. One of the most important parts of the invention is the addition without and around the wheel of two broad stationary disks, the space between which at their inner periphery is very little greater than that between the crowns of the wheel at the part next to them, but which curve outward and apart, so that the space at their exterior periphery is twice as great; the total diameter of these disks being about twice that of the wheel. When the regulating gate is raised to full height, the section through which the water passes in escaping from the wheel is thus gradually enlarged, in a ratio from 1 to 4; hence the action of the water should fall within the same distance from 1 to, providing the disks be wholly submerged. This arrangement is called the diffuser; its effect is to diminish the pressure against the water escaping from the outer edge of the wheel, and thus to increase the power in the same ratio as by a certain increase in the available fall. Its principle is thus similar to that of diverging conical tubes for delivery of liquids. (See HYDRO-MECHANICS.) Its theoretical advantage is a gain of .05 power; but, probably owing to irregular movements of the water, the gain practically is about .03 of the power. Mr. Boyden also, by means of a peculiar box with bearings of soft or babbitt metal, suspends the wheel from the top of the vertical shaft, instead of running it on a step at the bottom; while by grooves and mortices the buckets are so firmly fixed between the crowns of the wheel, as to allow them to be much thinner, and to secure a freer passage for the water. In a turbine of this pattern, made in 1851 for the Tremont mills, the guides are 33 in number; the buckets 44; the least height between the crowns, .8743 ft.; greatest height, .9368 ft.; total diameter of the wheel, 8.333 ft.; diameter between inner edges of wheel, 6.75 ft.; diameter of the lower part of the disk, 6.729 ft.; diameter of the wrought iron turned shaft in different parts, 7 to 8 inches. Upon this turbine a series of extremely careful experiments was made, the various data being noted by several observers at the same time,

and accurately compared by marking the time at brief intervals. The experiments embrace the quantity of water discharged, the velocity of the wheel, the percentage of power (maximum, in this case, .793) utilized, &c.-For further details and rules respecting the construction and proportioning of turbines, as well as for a full account of the experiments referred to, and the results, and of others in relation to centre-vent wheels and the flow of water over weirs, see “Lowell Hydraulic Experiments" (Boston, 1855).

TURBOT, a marine, soft-rayed fish of the flatfish family, and genus rhombus (Cuv.), characterized by minute sharp teeth on the jaws and pharynx, the dorsal fin commencing on the head in front of the eyes, and like the anal extending to the tail, and with the eyes on the left side. The European turbot (R. maximus, Cuv.), the finest of the family, sometimes measures 6 feet in width, and weighs over 200 lbs.; the left side is brown and covered with small tubercles, and the right side or lower surface smooth and white; without the tail the body is nearly round; mouth large, opening obliquely upward; eyes in a vertical line, one over the other; gill openings large; pectorals small. It keeps on sandy grounds, and is a great wanderer, usually in companies, living near the bottom, and feeding on small fish, crustaceans, and mollusks; though voracious, it is particular in its choice of food, and will bite at none but fresh bait; the spawning season is about August, after which it soon recovers its good condition. Its flesh is white, fat, flaky, and delicate, and has been highly esteemed from remote antiquity; it is disputed whether this or the next species was the rhombus of the ancient Romans; the French call it water or sea pheasant on account of its fine flavor. Though not uncommon on the coasts of Great Britain, most of the turbot sold in the English markets are caught by Dutch fishermen on the long line of sandy banks between England and Holland; the value sent to London market from this source alone is annually not far from $500,000. The fishery begins about the end of March and closes by the middle of August, and is prosecuted both by lines and trawl nets; the hooks are baited with smelts or other small and bright fishes; each Dutch boat brings from 100 to 150 fish, usually weighing each 5 to 10 lbs. In the time of Pennant there was a famous fishery of turbot at Scarborough; to each boat were 3 men, and each man with 3 lines, and each line with 280 hooks; the 9 lines were fastened together and extended at full length across the current, and allowed to remain out 6 hours; a great many fish were caught in this way.-The brill, pearl, or smooth turbot (R. vulgaris, Cuv.) is a smaller and less delicate species, with smooth scales, from the same localities and caught in the same manner; the under jaw is the longer, and the upper eye a little behind the lower; it is reddish sandy brown, varied with darker,

and sprinkled with white pearl-like specks; under surface smooth and white; it is found in the Mediterranean, as are several other species still less esteemed.-The American or spotted turbot (R. maculatus, Girard; pleuronectes, De Kay), called also New York plaice and watery flounder, is from 12 to 18 inches long, and 6 to 8 wide, though sometimes attaining a weight of 20 lbs.; it is smooth, on the left side reddish gray with large circular or oblong darker blotches surrounded by a lighter margin, and with numerous white spots, especially on the fins; the lower surface white and spotless; iris silvery; gape wide, with a single row of separate, large, sharp teeth, and a protuberance on the chin; ends of dorsal rays free; body elongated; it resembles the brill more than any other European species. It occurs along the coast of the New England and middle states, and is sometimes taken by mackerel fishers near the shore; it is considered a delicate article of food.

TURENNE, HENRI DE LA TOUR D'Auvergne, vicomte de, a French marshal, born in Sedan, Sept. 11, 1611, killed near Sulzbach, Bavaria, July 26, 1675. He was the second son of Henri de Bouillon, prince of Sedan, by Elizabeth of Nassau, daughter of William I. of Orange, and was sent when a boy to Holland, where he learned the art of war under his uncle Maurice. In 1630, visiting the court of France in the interest of his brother Frédéric de Bouillon, he was induced by Cardinal Richelieu to enter the service of France, received the command of an infantry regiment, distinguished himself in Lorraine under Marshal de La Force, became major-general in 1634, and served under La Valette in Germany, where in 1635 he relieved Mentz, then besieged by the imperialists. In 1637, with an auxiliary corps, he joined the Swedish army under Duke Bernard of Weimar, and during this campaign captured several towns, including the stronghold of Brisach. In 1639 he was made lieutenant-general and ordered to Italy, where, under the count d'Harcourt, he defeated the united Austrians and Spaniards at Casale, and forced Turin to surrender in 1640. In 1642 he had the chief command of the French army in Roussillon, and conquered that province from Spain. After the death of Richelieu and Louis XIII. he was made marshal of France, and placed in command of the French army in Germany. He crossed the Rhine, worsted the Bavarians under Mercy, acted in concert with the prince of Condé in the 3 days' battle at Freiburg (1644), was defeated by Mercy at Mergentheim, May 5, 1645, but gained a victory over him in conjunction with Condé at Auersheim, near Nördlingen, 3 months later, and, joining the Swedish general Wrangel, conquered the Bavarians at Lavingen and Zusmarshausen, and forced the elector to sign an armistice, in March, 1647. He then repaired to Flanders, and by taking several places aided in bringing about the peace of Westphalia (1648). On his return

to France, his love for the duchess de Longueville and his brother's example connected him with the Fronde. At the head of a Spanish army which was sent to support the rebels, he was defeated near Réthel by Marshal DuplessisPraslin, and driven out of France (1650). After trying unsuccessfully to bring about a reconciliation between France and Spain, he solicited and obtained a pardon from the French government, returned to his country, and henceforth proved the most loyal supporter of the king, while Condé was the leader of the Frondeurs. He defeated the troops of his illustrious opponent at Bléneau, near the Loire, in April, 1652, followed him up to Paris, inflicted upon him a most severe loss in July in the faubourg St. Antoine, and thus secured the triumph of the royal cause at home. The Spaniards having invaded the north of France under the leadership of Condé, he marched against them, worsted them at Arras in 1654, gained the decisive victory of the "Dunes," June 14, 1658, took possession of Dunkirk, and by these and other successes hastened the peace of the Pyrénées, Nov. 7, 1659. He had been previously made minister of state, and now received the title of marshal-general of the camps and armies of France. In 1667, war being declared against Spain under pretence of vindicating the hereditary rights of Maria Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV., Turenne entered Flanders at the head of the French army, accompanied by the king himself, and in less than three months achieved the conquest of that province; and several of the cities he had taken were secured to France by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, May 2, 1668. In the war against Holland (1672) he commanded one of the armies that marched into that country; and when the European powers came to its rescue, he entered Germany, advanced to the Elbe, and forced the elector of Brandenburg to a separate peace at Vossem in 1673; then, in a campaign which is considered a masterpiece of strategy, he protected Alsace from invasion, crossed the Rhine at Philippsburg, routed the enemy at Sinzheim and Ladenburg (1674), and drove them back to the Main, and, under orders from Louvois, devastated the Palatinate, laying 30 towns in ashes. In the following winter, with an army of scarcely 22,000 men, he nearly destroyed 60,000 Austrians and Brandenburgers under Beurnonville, gaining victories at Mulhouse, Colmar, and Türkheim (Jan. 5, 1675). He now wished to retire from active service; but he was the only French general who could successfully oppose the celebrated Montecuculi, and yielding to the king's entreaties, he continued in command, and during 4 months the manœuvres and strategic operations of the two opposing generals were subjects of general admiration. Finally Turenne forced his rival into a position near Sulzbach where he was constrained to fight at a disadvantage; the French commander consequently had a new victory in prospect, when, surveying the last

preparations for the battle which was to take place on the morrow, he was struck in the body by a stray ball, and his death caused his army to fall back beyond the Rhine. His remains were taken to St. Denis, and interred amid the royal tombs. When these were broken open during the revolution, his corpse was found in a perfect state of preservation and taken to a collection of antiquities, where it remained until 1801, when Bonaparte had it transferred to the church of the Invalides.. Turenne was originally a Protestant, but became a Catholic in 1668 through the instruction and influence of Bossuet. His life was written by Sandras, Raguenet, and Ramsay. He left Mémoires on his campaigns from 1643 to 1658, found in Ramsay's biography, and Lettres et Mémoires (2 vols. fol., Paris, 1782).

TURGENEFF, IVAN SERGEIEVITCH, & Russian novelist, born in Orel, Nov. 9, 1818. He was educated at Moscow and at St. Petersburg, and · in 1838 went to Berlin to finish his studies. On his return to Russia he obtained a situation in the department of the interior, and made himself known by several national songs, which became very popular; but in consequence of the sentiments expressed in one of them he was disgraced and sent into exile, and from 1847 to 1850 he lived in Germany and France. He has written poems entitled "Panascha" (1843) and "Conversation" (1844); "Memoirs, or Journal of a Sportsman" (2 vols., 1852), twice translated into French; Scènes de la vie Russe (2 vols. 18mo., Paris, 1858); and Une nichée des gentilshommes (1859), beside various comedies, poems, and articles contributed to the Russian reviews.

TURGENEFF, NICOLAI, a Russian author, born in 1790. He was educated at Göttingen, was attached as Russian commissioner to Baron Stein's provisional administration of the reconquered German provinces, was made state councillor, and, being placed at the head of the department of the interior and of economic affairs, devoted himself with ardor to the promotion of schemes for the emancipation of the serfs. In 1819 he joined the "Society of Public Good," founded by Trubetzkoi and Muravieff, and was in consequence involved in the conspiracy of 1825 and condemned to death. He fled to France, and has since resided in Paris. In 1847 and 1848 he published La Russie et les Russes, divided into three parts, viz.: Mémoires d'un proscrit, Tableau politique et social de la Russie, and De l'avenir de la Russie (3 vols. 8vo.). He has recently published a pamphlet entitled La Russie en présence de la crise Européenne, and also "The Last Word on the Emancipation of the Serfs in Russia" (1860).

TURGOT, ANNE ROBERT JACQUES, baron de l'Aulne, a French philosopher and statesman, born in Paris, May 10, 1727, died March 20, 1781. He was educated for the church, and in 1749 became prior of the Sorbonne. In the same year he published a "Letter upon Paper Money:" and abandoning the clerical profession in 172,

he studied law, and in 1758 became counsellor in the parliament and master of requests. Qualifying himself for administrative functions by special attention to natural philosophy, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, he expounded his views upon the last three subjects in several papers which appeared in the Encyclopédie or in pamphlet form. The most remarkable among the latter is the Conciliateur, ou lettre d'un ecclésiastique à un magistrat sur la tolérance civile (1754). In 1761 he was appointed intendant of Limousin, and introduced many important reforms in the administration of that province; free transport was allowed to corn and breadstuffs, taxes were alleviated, roads and highways improved, and workhouses and charitable institutions established. In 1766 appeared his Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses, his chief work on political economy. He also published valuable papers on loans and on mines, beside his Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains. On the accession of Louis XVI. he was called to the navy department; and one month later, Aug. 24, 1774, he was appointed comptroller-general of finances, and undertook to introduce reforms on a large scale. In a letter to the king which was then published, he gave a synopsis of his intended policy; he desired to improve the financial condition of the kingdom by wise economy and integrity; he insisted upon the freedom of labor at home and of trade abroad, and aimed at substituting for taxes on a multitude of articles a single tax on land. Encouraged by Louis XVI., he went to work with tact, prudence, and energy; but these reforms were obnoxious to courtiers and many others. In 1775, troubles having arisen on account of the high price of breadstuffs, he was charged with having caused scarcity by his regulations respecting the grain trade. In Jan. 1776, he caused an edict to be issued, abolishing compulsory labor for the state, internal duties on breadstuffs, the privileges of trading corporations, &c.; but this only increased the number of his enemies; the privileged classes affected by it, the nobles, the clergy, and the chief tradesmen, were so loud in their complaints that the king was afraid to support his minister any longer. Turgot was consequently dismissed in May, and retired to private life, devoting his leisure to science, literature, and philosophy. He was an honorary member of the academy of inscriptions. His Euvres complètes, published by Dupont de Nemours (9 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1808-'11), were reprinted under the supervision of Eugène Daire (2 vols. 8vo., 1844). His biography was written by Condorcet (London, 1796).

TURIN (It. Torino; anc. Augusta Taurinorum), a city of Piedmont, capital of the kingdom of Italy and of a province of its name, situated in an extensive plain enclosed on all sides except the N. E. by the Alps, at the junction of the Dora-Susina with the Po, 79 m. W. S. W. from Milan; pop. in 1858, 179,635. The

Po is crossed by 3 bridges and the Dora-Susina by 2, one of the latter being a magnificent structure of a single arch with a span of 150 feet. Turin is of oblong form, about 1 m. long and m. broad, and is defended by a very strong citadel on the W. The old town has narrow, crooked streets, and ill-built houses. In the new town the streets are broad and cross each other at right angles; and the houses are generally 4 or 5 stories in height, and many of them decorated with sculptures and other ornaments. The approach to Turin from the W. is by a fine avenue, one of the longest in Europe; and there are 13 public squares, the most important of which are the Piazza del Castello, the Piazza di San Carlo, the Piazza di San Giovanni, and the Piazza dell' Erbe. The first of these squares lies near the centre of the town, is almost surrounded by lofty palaces, and derives its name from having in its centre the old palace of the dukes of Savoy, considered one of the finest in Turin; the modern palace, at the N. side of the square, is an extensive building, contains a fine collection of paintings, and has large gardens attached. The theatre, which was built from designs by Alfieri, stands on the E. side. The Piazza di San Carlo is almost entirely surrounded by arcades, and contains a statue of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, by Marochetti. The buildings of Turin are mostly of brick. The city is not rich in ancient edifices, but many of the modern public buildings are very magnificent. The duomo or cathedral of St. John the Baptist, built in the 16th century, is small, and principally remarkable for the beautiful arabesques in the pilasters which adorn the front. The interior has recently been richly decorated with frescoes, and contains some fine paintings. Near it is the chapel of Santo Sudario, a small round building, considered a masterpiece of Guarini. The other churches most worthy of notice are San Filippo Neri, the largest and one of the finest in the town; San Domenico, which contains a fine Virgin and child by Guercino; San Tommaso, of little architectural merit, but possessed of some fine paintings; Santa Cristiana, with a fine façade by Juvara; Corpus Domini, highly ornamented in the interior with marble, gilding, and other decorations; and La Gran Madre di Dio, built in imitation of the Pantheon at Rome, to commemorate the restoration of the royal family in 1814. A Protestant church in the Lombard style was erected in 1853. There are in all 110 churches and chapels; and there were formerly many monasteries and nunneries, but they have been suppressed with the exception of those that are actually engaged in works of charity. Other buildings which deserve notice are the Palazzo degli Archivi Reali or register office, an extensive edifice by Juvara; the custom house, town house, and court house. The senate holds its meetings in the ancient ducal palace, and the chamber of deputies in the Carignan palace, formerly the residence of the royal princes.

The university of Turin was founded in 1412, and is a magnificent building, with a quadrangle surrounded by arcades in which are a nunber of ancient sculptures and inscriptions. It has a library of 112,000 volumes and 2,000 MSS., originally formed by the dukes of Savoy; a valuable collection of pictures and medals, an excellent Egyptian museum, museums of anatomy and natural history, and a good botanic garden. It has faculties of theology, law, medicine, surgery, and arts, with 84 professors, and in 1858-19 was attended by 1,376 students. The royal academy of sciences was founded in 1783, and consists of 40 members; it has valuable collections in mineralogy, zoology, and antiquities. There are also an episcopal seminary, a royal military academy, two colleges, numerous elementary schools, and institutions for the deaf, dumb, and blind. The most important charitable foundations are the Retiro delle Rosine, where 400 girls are maintained chiefly by their own industry; the general hospital; the charity hospital, which accommodates 1,500 inmates; the Reale Albergo di Virtù, an industrial school; the Regio Maniconico or lunatic asylum; the Spidale di San Luigi, which receives many inmates and gives relief to a great number of out-door patients; and the Compagnia di San Paolo, established for a great number of objects, including education, marriage portions, and the relief of secret poverty. The manufactures of Turin include linen, woollen, cotton, and silk goods, leather, paper, glass, china, hardware, carriages, arms, musical and other instruments; and there are numerous distilleries, dye works, and different kinds of mills. The wealth of the city is principally derived from its trade in silk; beside which the commerce includes different manufactured articles, wine, liqueurs, grain, and fruit. Turin is connected by railway with Genoa, Alessandria, Novara, Cuneo, Pinerolo, and Susa. Italian is the language used in official transactions, and both it and French are spoken by the upper classes; but the people generally speak a Piedmontese dialect.-Turin is supposed to have been founded by a tribe called Taurini or Taurisci, of Transalpine origin. Hannibal subdued the surrounding country, but after he retired from Italy the Romans reoccupied it and made Turin a colony under the name of Colonia Julia, which was afterward changed to Augusta Taurinorum in honor of Augustus. Turin was sacked by the Goths, and afterward by the Lombards; and it subsequently passed into the hands of Charlemagne, who conferred it in feudal tenure on its bishops, several of whom ruled it tyrannically. It was afterward governed by the marquises of Susa, and passed by marriage with the heiress of that family to the counts of Savoy. In 1281 it became the capital of the states of the house of Savoy, which with some slight interruptions it has ever since remained.

TÜRK, KARL CHRISTIAN WILHELM VON, a German educator and philanthropist, born in

Meiningen, Jan. 8, 1774, died near Berlin, July 31, 1846. He was educated at Jena, and after completing his legal studies was appointed by the prince of Mecklenburg in 1794 chancery auditor, and in 1796 chamberlain and chancery councillor. In 1800 the supervision of the school system of Mecklenburg was added to his other duties. In 1804 he visited Pestalozzi at München-Buchsee, and on his return to Mecklenburg collected a company of boys, whom he taught two hours a day, instructing the teachers also in Pestalozzi's method. In 1805 he was appointed justice and consistory councillor by the duke of Oldenburg, and there renewed his teaching, to the dissatisfaction of the duke. Resigning his place, he gave himself up wholly to the business of teaching, visiting Pestalozzi again, and for a time becoming a teacher in his school at Yverdun, and subsequently establishing a school of his own at the castle of Vevay, on the lake of Geneva. In 1814 he disposed of this, and in 1815 was appointed royal and school councillor by the Prussian government, first at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and afterward at Potsdam. Here he labored zealously to introduce Pestalozzi's method into Prussia, and with great success. He also introduced the culture of the mulberry and the raising of silkworms, and invented machines for reeling silk from the cocoons. In 1833 he resigned his post (the king granting him his full salary as a pension), to superintend the institutions he had founded. These were, a swimming school at Potsdam; an association for the improvement of silk-growing; a fund for school teachers' widows, to which he devoted the profits of some of his works; a society at Potsdam for the support of poor young men devoted to the arts and sciences; three orphan houses, one for boys and another for girls, orphans of government officers and teachers of the higher grades who were left destitute, and a third for the orphan children of artisans and teachers and officers of lower grades; and a soup distribution institution, for the old, sick, feeble, poor, and lying-in women. To these institutions he gave not only the profits of his published works, and the receipts from the sale of his gallery of paintings, but the greater part of his property and the proceeds of his autobiography, which he directed should be published after his death for their benefit. Von Türk's works are: "Letters from München-Buchsee" (Leipsic, 1808), an account of Pestalozzi's method; Die sinnlichen Wahrnehmungen (“Percep tion by the Senses," 1810); "Guide to Instruction in Arithmetic" (Frankfort, 1817), which is a valuable text book for teachers, and has passed through many editions; several essays on rearing silkworms and the growth of the mulberry; and his autobiography.

TURKEY (meleagris, Linn.), a well known gallinaceous bird, the type of the family melcagrina, which contains also the Guinea fowl (numida). The bill is moderate and strong, shorter than the head, compressed on the sides,