gers, constant in their friendships, but given to dissimulation, indolent, bigoted, licentious, and deficient in tender emotions. They are almost universally fatalists. The Osmanli is too indolent to engage willingly in severe labor. He is exempted from the capitation tax which the other races are compelled to pay; he sometimes condescends to engage in trade, though no match for the sharp Greek or the wily Armenian, but, unless in a very abject condition, avoids agricultural or mechanical pursuits. The Toorkomans and Koords are shepherds and herdsmen, often migratory, but sometimes occupying villages and cultivating the soil. They are more industrious than the Osmanlis. The Slavic races, the Roumans, and the Albanians are the principal agriculturists in European, and the Armenians, Syrians, and Druses, with some of the Osmanlis, in Asiatic Turkey.-Agriculture is in a low state, and the implements and culture are of the rudest description, the former being almost universally of the same form as those in use 3,000 years ago. Notwithstanding this imperfect cultivation, the crops of grain, rice, cotton, tobacco, &c., owing to the fertility of the soil, are very large, yielding from 25 to 100 fold return. The olive is largely cultivated for food and for oil, and the grape, fig, date, orange, and citron yield abundant and profitable returns. The manufactures of the Turkish empire are comparatively few and simple. Wax, raisins, dried figs, fig paste, olive oil, silks, red cloth, goat-skin morocco of excellent quality, saddlery, swords of superior workmanship, firearms, copper and tin utensils, shawls, carpets, dye stuffs, embroidery, essential oils, attar of roses, brandy from prunes, &c., are the principal. Its commerce is extensive and on the increase. The exports are principally raw materials, silk, cotton, tobacco, wheat, maize, wool, goats' hair, meerschaum clay, wax, honey, and sponges; drugs and dye stuffs, opium, madder, gall nuts, gum arabic, valonia, and various gum resins; figs, currants, raisins, wines, olive oil, &c., with some carpets and red cloths. The imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, glass, pottery, arms, paper, cutlery, steel, amber, &c. The value of the entire imports of the empire cannot be ascertained, but in 1860 there were imported into the 3 ports of Constantinople, Smyrna, and Trebizond foreign goods to the value of $75,502,317. The exports are much less. Of this trade Great Britain has the largest share, exporting to Turkey in 1858 about $50,000,000 worth, and receiving from that country about $39,000,000. In 1847 the imports from Great Britain at Constantinople and Smyrna alone exceeded $47,000,000. The exports from Turkey to the United States in 1860 were $1,041,959, and the imports about $420,000. With the exception of a few of the great thoroughfares, there are really no roads worthy of the name throughout the empire. Two railways have recently been constructed (1862), one from Smyrna to Aidin, to be completed to

the promontory opposite Samos, and the other from Rassova on the Danube to Kustendji on the Black sea. Several others have been projected. The Danube with its navigable tributaries forms the great channel of commerce for the northern provinces of European Turkey.— Education has been hitherto very greatly neglected, but there is now a deep interest taken in intellectual culture, since it is the only av enue to many kinds of employment. In 1847 the system of public instruction was entirely remodelled. There are now elementary schools for reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious instruction; middle schools, in which Arabic composition and Mohammedan religious histo ry are taught; and colleges for higher branches, such as medicine, agriculture, and naval and military science. The instruction in these is gratuitous, and parents are required to send their children to school on attaining the age of 6 years. Wealthy Osmanlis often send their children to Paris to be educated. The Christian (Greek, Roman Catholic, and Armenian) sects have some schools of their own, but there is very little thorough education in the empire. There are now 4 newspapers in the Turkish language, 2 in Greek, 2 in French, and one each in English, Armenian, Bulgarian, Arabic, and Hebrew, beside several Rouman and Servisn newspapers published in the tributary prov inces. The state religion is the Mohammedan, but Christian, Jewish, and other sects are recognized, and permitted to conduct their wor ship in their own way. Previous to 1856 a Mohammedan who became a Christian or Jew, if of Turkish birth, was liable to be put to death; but by a hatti-sherif or decree of that year the sultan abolished this penalty, and gave all persons of whatever birth equal rights and justice, and liberty to embrace whatever religion they chose. This hatti-sherif, or hatti-humayum as it is sometimes called, has been strictly enforced in those pashalics under the immediate government of the sultan, but in the re moter provinces and among the more bigoted Mohammedans it has remained virtually a dead letter. The government of Turkey is a pure despotism, or absolute monarchy. The emperor has the titles of sultan, padishah, grand seignior, khan, and hunkiar. Though professedly ab solute, his power is practically very much lim ited by the sheik ul-Islam, who is at the head of the combined religious and judicial order of the nation called the chain of the ulema, composed of the ministers of religion and justice, and has the right of objecting to any decree of the sultan. The first executive officer of the government is the grand vizier, who is the vicegerent of the sovereign, and is usually called sadri azam (great president). The other officers composing the cabinet or divan are the presi dents of the supreme council of state (the ahkiami adlié) and the grand council of internal affairs (the tanzimat); the seraskier, who is commander-in-chief and minister of war; the capudan pasha, or high admiral; the malliyé

naziri, or minister of finance; the kharidshizhié naziri (formerly reis effendi), the minister for foreign affairs; the marif naziri, or minister of public instruction; the zarbhani mushiri, master of the mint; the tidjaret naziri, or minister of commerce; the daava naziri, or minister of justice; the efkaf naziri, administrator of mosque property and charitable trusts; and the zabtizhié mushiri, or minister of police. The governorsgeneral (valis) of the eyalets or pashalics receive a salary of $3,000 per month, and the kaimakams or governors of sandjaks less sums according to their rank. The fixed revenues of the pashalics are not now farmed out as formerly, but are collected through defterdars or receivers-general in each pashalic, in the same way as in other civilized countries. The variable imposts are farmed, but the power of the farmers to oppress those from whom the impost is to be collected is much restricted. The mushirs and kaimakams are appointed by the tanzimat on the nomination of the sultan, and are removable at the sultan's pleasure. They no longer possess the power of life and death. The Koran being the supreme authority in law as well as religion, the law officers, who must all be Osmanlis, form a part of the chain of the ulema, and receive the same training as the ministers of religion; they rise through 10 degrees, from that of imam to that of grand mufti. The receipts of the imperial treasury, for the year ending Oct. 1861, were $57,220,000, and the government expenditure for the same period $67,045,000. The public debt, Sept. 13, 1861, was of two classes: the home debt, amounting to $92,292,000, and the foreign debt, of $165,762,000. The interest on this debt absorbs 16 per cent. of the annual revenue. The army of the empire is divided into the nisam or permanent force, and the redif or reserve. The effective or permanent force is nominally 180,000 men, but really does not exceed 120,000, divided into 6 army corps (ordus), each under the command of a mushir or field marshal, who must be a ferik pasha, or of equal rank with the governor of an eyalet. These corps are severally composed of 2 divisions, having each 3 regiments of infantry, 2 of cavalry, and 1 of artillery. The reserve is also composed of 6 corps, each commanded by a marshal of the rank of a liva pasha, or governor of a liva or sandjak. The number of men enrolled in the reserve is variously stated at from 126,000 to 800,000. Beside these there are 4 detached divisions: the army of Candia, of 1,000 men; the army of Tripoli, 5,000; that of Tunis, 5,000; and the central division of artillery, comprising about 30,000. Bosnia and Albania, in case of invasion, are bound to furnish each 30,000 men, Servia 40,000, and Egypt 18,000, making in all 118,000 levies from these states. The navy consists nominally of 8 ships of the line, 12 frigates, 4 corvettes, 8 brigs, 9 schooners, and 23 steamers. Of these, 18 steamers, 2 ships of the line, 5 frigates, 6 corvettes, and 5 brigs, carrying in all 1,218 cannon, and having 34,000 marines and

sailors, are fit for effective service.-The Turkish empire in Europe dates only from the overthrow of the Byzantine empire in the 15th century; but the Osmanlis had already become a formidable power, and the masters of the greater part of Asiatic Turkey, in the early years of the 14th century. (See TURKS.) In 1299 Othman or Osman (from whom are derived the names Ottoman and Osmanli) invaded Bithynia, and occupied the territory of Nicæa. In 1326 his son Orchan took Prusa (Broussa), the capital of Bithynia, and subsequently penetrated into Thrace. His son Murad or Amurath I. subdued the whole of Thrace, in 1362 established from his young captives the military band known as janizaries, and subsequently conquered the Bulgarians, Servians, Bosnians, and Albanians, and fell on the battle field of Kossovo in 1389. He was succeeded by his son Bajazet or Bayazid, surnamed Ilderim (the lightning), who completed the conquest of Asia Minor, of a portion of Thrace which had revolted, and of Macedonia and Thessaly, overran central Greece, and conquered in the great battle of Nicopolis, but was defeated and taken prisoner by Tamerlane in 1402. In 1422 the sons of Bajazet, who had contended with each other for the government, which they had wrested from Tamerlane's successors, had all deceased, and Amurath II., the grandson of Bajazet, succeeded to an undivided empire, which he greatly increased by the recapture of Adrianople, and the reduction of Roumelia, Servia, Albania, and the whole of Greece north of the isthmus. For a time Scanderbeg, the Albanian chief, and Hunyady, the waywode of Transylvania, were successful in checking his conquests; but the severe defeat of Ladislas, king of Hungary and Poland, at Varna (1444), effectually destroyed the hopes of the Christian world. Amurath II. was succeeded in 1451 by Mohammed II., who in 1453 took Constantinople, and established the Osmanli throne on the ruins of the palace of the Roman emperors. He next attempted the siege of Belgrade, but was repulsed with heavy loss by Hunyady, and, turning his attention to Greece, reduced the whole Morea to subjection; he subsequently reduced Trebizond, and in 1466, having driven Scanderbeg into Lissa, then belonging to the Venetians, reigned supreme over all the eastern provinces of the Roman empire in Europe, and the whole of Asia Minor. His grandson Selim I. (1512-20), the son of Bajazet II., was victorious over the Persians, and reduced Koordistan, Syria, Egypt, and a part of Arabia. His son, Solyman the Magnificent (1520-'66), made conquests on every side, successively reducing Belgrade and the island of Rhodes, Hungary, Armenia, Irak, Tunis and Algiers, Croatia, Yemen, Shirvan, Georgia, and Transylvania. Moldavia was made tributary. Selim II., his son, conquered Cyprus, but lost the great naval battle of Lepanto (1571). From that time a weaker race of princes succeeded to the throne, and the janizaries gained a degree of power which

made them for the most part the actual rulers of the country. (For the reigns of the most important sultans of this period, see AMURATH III. and IV., MOHAMMED IV., ACHMET III., MAHMOUD I., and ABDUL HAMET.) Frequent wars with Poland, Austria, Persia, Venice, and Russia were waged, mostly under the lead of the grand viziers, and but rarely with success. Montecuculi, Sobieski, Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene destroyed the Turkish power on the Danube; and at the peace of Carlowitz in 1699 Mustapha II. surrendered almost all the Hungarian provinces to Austria, Azof to Peter the Great of Russia, Podolia and Ukraine to Poland, and the Morea and Dalmatia to Venice. During almost the whole of the 18th century Turkey was at war, with brief intervals of peace or truce, with Russia, and much of the time with Austria also. Though occasionally successful, this protracted warfare was on the whole exceedingly disastrous to Turkey, causing her the loss of the Crimea and all her possessions N. of the Black sea, and of the exclusive navigation of that sea and the straits connected with it. In other quarters, too, losses were suffered. The reign of Selim III. (1789 to 1807), though characterized by enlightened reforms and great ability, was one in which disaster still followed the empire. By the peace of Jassy (1792) the Dniester was made the frontier between Russia and Turkey. Several of the pashas aspired to independence, and the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte led to a war with France, which ended in considerable concessions to that power; and wars with Russia and England and the rebellion of the janizaries made the condition of Turkey more perilous than ever before. Selim was deposed in 1807, at the instance of the janizaries and the grand mufti, in consequence of the reforms he had introduced. The one year's reign of Mustapha IV., who restored the ancient régime, was followed in 1808 by the vigorous administration of Mahmoud II. Introducing more radical reforms than any of his predecessors, concluding peace with England in 1809 and Russia in 1812, not without considerable sacrifice of territory, and ridding himself by a terrible slaughter of the janizaries, he was in a position to rule successfully and with advantage to his empire; but the revolution of the Greeks and the insurrection of Mehemet Ali in Egypt involved him in new and still greater difficulties. Greece achieved her independence at an almost fatal cost to Turkey. The revolted pasha of Egypt had also substantially attained to an independent position, when in 1840 the great powers of Europe, with the exception of France, deeming the adherence of Egypt to Turkey necessary to the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe, reduced him to the condition of a tributary. On the death of Mahmoud in 1839, his son Abdul Medjid, then but 16 years of age, ascended the throne. In July, 1841, the great powers of Europe guaranteed the integrity of the Turkish empire, the result of which was the consolidation and

strengthening of the empire, and the suppression of most of the chronic difficulties and revolts which had so long impaired the efficiency of its government. The revolutions of 1848 did not disturb Turkey, except in the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, which were tributaries rather than provinces. The sultan introduced numerous reforms; among others, the decree known as the hatti-sherif already referred to, first promulgated in 1839, and confirmed at the close of the Crimean war in 1856. The claims of the czar Nicholas to a protectorate over the Christian subjects of the sultan, led to a declaration of war against Russia in Oct. 1853, in which England, France, and Sardinia subsequently joined. (See CRIMEA.) As a result of this war, in the early part of which the Turkish forces under Omer Pasha distinguished themselves, the access to the mouth of the Danube and the territory around it were ceded to Turkey, and Russia was forbidden to maintain any considerable fleet in the Black sea, or to attempt the exercise of authority over, the subjects of the Porte. The Crimean war was followed, as it was preceded, by considerable troubles with the small semi-independent state of Montenegro. In June, 1858, fanatic Mohammedans at Jiddah massacred the British and French consuls; the town was bombarded by a British man-of-war, and subsequently a part of the criminals were discovered and executed. In Sept. 1859, a conspiracy was discovered, having for its purpose the assassination of the sultan and his principal ministers and the restoration of the ancient customs; the principal movers in it were arrested and condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a fortress. In June, 1860, a war broke out between the Druses and Maronites in Syria, and many thousands of both races were massacred. The interposition of France and England led to the adoption of rigorous measures for its suppression, which was accomplished in the autumn of the same year. On June 25, 1861, Abdul Medjid died, and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who has commenced a decided retrenchment of the expenses of the government, and gives promise of being a more efficient ruler than his predecessor. This new reign, however, is already troubled by a renewed conflict with Montenegro, which on the part of the Turks is carried on, with varying success, under the command of Omer Pasha.

TURKEY BUZZARD, the popular name of one of the common American vultures, cathar tes aura (Illig.). It is about 2 feet long and 6 in extent of wings; the bill, as in the other species of the genus (which includes the black vulture or carrion crow and the great California vulture), is long and comparatively slender, with an arched, strong tip; a large soft cere, of the length of the bill, in which the pervious nostrils are placed; wings long and pointed, the 3d and 4th quills nearly equal and longest; tail moderate and nearly even; tarsi short, plumed below the knee, and with small scales;

toes weak, united by a small membrane, hind one short and weak, and claws strong; head and neck naked, no fleshy crest, and the plumage black. All the vultures which have the nostrils perforated belong to the new world; this genus is one of the sub-family sarcoramphina or condors. The color is brownish black, with a purplish lustre, darkest on the back and upper part of tail, and some pale edgings; bill yellowish; head and neck bright red, with a few scattered hair-like feathers and wrinkled skin; plumage commencing on the neck with a circular ruff of prominent feathers. It is found all over North America, except the arctic regions, going on the Pacific coast as far N. as the British possessions, but on the Atlantic rarely seen N. of New Jersey; but it is most abundant in the southern states, migrating thither from the colder parts. It is essentially a carrion eater, though it will devour any kind of fresh meat, and even small living mammals, birds, and reptiles; it has been known to attack and kill weak and sickly animals in the fields. It associates in flocks of 25 to 30, even when not feeding, becoming very familiar in the southern cities, where it performs a very useful scavenger's work in devouring any carrion or animal filth left in the streets; it is called John Crow vulture in Jamaica, and gallinazo in many places in the S. W. portions of North America. It finds out its prey at a great distance by the acute sense of sight, like other vultures; its flight is lofty, and uncommonly graceful and long sustained, sailing for miles without apparent effort, with the tips of the wings bent upward by the weight of the body; it is often seen in company with the black vulture, hawks, kites, and crows; it is also a good walker on the ground. Its average weight is 6 lbs., which is somewhat less than that of the black vulture; it is also less common than the latter bird, more retired in its habits, and, though more inclined to carrion, neater, better formed, and a more rapid and elegant flier. It is fond of particular roosting places, generally high and dead cypresses in deep swamps; it drinks freely, immersing the bill to the base and taking long draughts; it is very sensitive to cold, and liable to disease about the eyes and legs in the shape of warts and excrescences; when alarmed or provoked it utters a loud hissing noise. In the southern states the breeding season begins early in February, the nest being usually placed in the hollow of a dead tree, or, it is said, even on the ground, and containing 2 eggs, 2 by 2 inches, light cream-colored, with irregular black and brown marks; both birds incubate, each feeding the other and the young with the disgorged contents of the stomach; incubation lasts 32 days, and only one brood is raised in a season; the nests become extremely dirty and fetid.

TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The languages spoken by the different tribes of Turkish or Tartar origin form a principal division of the great Scythian, Altaic, or VOL. XV.-42

Turanian family, of which the chief common characteristics have been pointed out under TURANIAN RACE AND LANGUAGES. They constitute together a well marked group of nearly related idioms; even the Yakoot-the one which differs most from the rest, and is supposed to have severed itself from the main stem before the division of the latter into its other branches-is so distinctly a Turkish language that its relationship is apparent upon the most superficial examination; and it has been asserted, although doubtless without good reason, that a Yakoot from the Lena could make himself passably understood at Constantinople. The Tartar dialects are for the most part known only by scanty vocabularies and the descriptions of travellers; a few have been treated grammatically; three or four, as the Uigur, the Jagatai or oriental Turkish, and the Osmanli, have received literary culture, and are to be studied in written monuments. Of these last, the dialect of the tribe which has been during the past 500 years dominant in European and Asiatic Turkey, or the Osmanli Turkish, as it is distinctively called, is of by far the greatest importance, and to it we shall chiefly direct our attention. Its peculiarities are such as naturally result from its position and its culture under the powerful influence of Arabic and Persian; every part of its vocabulary, and even some departments of its grammar, are filled with Arabic and Persian elements; so that it presents the remarkable and unique spectacle of a dialect made up of materials derived from the three grand and totally disconnected families of language, the Turanian, Semitic, and Indo-European, to the detriment, of course, of its native character, by the corruption of its forms and the artificiality of its style. This is true especially, however, of the language which is taught in the grammars and written in the literature; the vernacular idiom of the people is a much purer Turkish. The Osmanli is usually written with the Arabic alphabet, which is exceedingly ill suited to it, as to the Persian, since it marks the vowels very imperfectly, and in its distinction of consonantal sounds is in part defective and in part redundant; to construct the spoken alphabet and phonetic form of the language from the published grammars is well nigh an impossibility. It is also sometimes written with the Armenian alphabet, which represents it much more faithfully. It has 9 vowels: 4 hard, viz., a, o, u, and a peculiar guttural i; and 5 soft, viz., ä (a flat), e, i, ō (French eu), and ü (French u). In the same word, as a general rule, only vowels of one or of the other of these classes are allowed to succeed one another; the dominant syllable, which is usually the final one of the root or theme, assimilating to its own character all that follow it. The consonants are y, r, l; ng, n, m; 8, z, sh, zh; kh, gh, f, v; k, g, t, d, P, h; and the compounds ch, j. The language has no proper articles, although its numeral "one" and its demonstrative are sometimes

b;

used nearly as articles. The adjective is uninflected. The nouns have no distinction of gender; their plural is formed by the addition of lar or ler. There is no nominative case-ending; the unchanged theme is employed as subject, in address (vocative), and also as indefinite object of a verb. Of cases, formed by inseparable affixed particles, which may properly be regarded as terminations of declension, there are an accusative, in i; a genitive, in ung; a dative, in e; an ablative, in den; an instrumental, in le; and a locative, in de. These suffixes are, saving certain slight euphonic changes, invariable; they are appended to the simple theme in the singular, and to the plural sign ler in the plural. The numerals are 1, bir; 2, iki; 3. üch; 4, dort; 5, besh; 6, elti; 7, yedi; 8, sekiz; 9, dokuz; 10, on; 11, on bir, &c.; 20, yegirmi; 30, otuz; 40, kirk; 50, elli; 60, eltmish; 70, yetmish; 80, seksen; 90, doksan; 100, yoz; 1000, bing. To form the ordinals, inji is added. The personal pronouns, which alone offer some anomalies of declension, are: I, ben; we, biz; thou, sen; ye, siz. In the third person we have rather a demonstrative than a personal pronoun: that one, ol; those, anlar. Possessive pronominal suffixes are: m, my; miz, our; n, thy; niz, your; i or si, his, hers, its; lari or leri, their. These are appended directly to the nominal theme, singular or plural, and the affixes of case follow them, as baba-lar-um-dan, from my fathers. There is no relative pronoun, except the Persian ki. The verbal roots are not always reducible to a monosyllabic form. From each root are formed a number of themes of derivative conjugation, by adding conjugational affixes; these are, for the passive, il; for the reflexive, in; for the reciprocal, ish; for the causal, der; and for the negative, me; which last, by prefixing e, becomes a sign of impossibility. Any or all of these affixes may be combined at once with a verbal root, so far as the idea admits of their combined modification; so that in theory we may have as many as 36 themes from one root, each conjugated through out in the same manner as the simple root: e. g., from sev-mek, to love (mek is infinitive affix), come sev-il-me-mek, not to be loved; seo-der-il-mek, to be made to love; sev-ish-ileme-mek, not to be able to be loved by one another, &c. The root of the verb, without affix, is the 2d person singular imperative: e. g., sen, love! The tenses and moods are of two kinds, simple and periphrastic. The former are formed either by appending a predicative pronominal suffix to a participle (except in the 3d person, which is left without suffix), or by adding a possessive suffix to a noun of action; thus, from dogmak, to strike: pres. part. dogur, striking; pres. dogur-um, strikingI, i. e., I am striking, I strike; pret. dogd-um, striking-mine, i. e., I have struck. The periphrastic tenses are formed by combining a participle or noun of action with an auxiliary verb; as dogmish idum, having struck was I,

i. e., I had struck. By these means, a great variety of more or less genuine verbal forms is produced, in the admission and classification of which, however, grammarians greatly differ; and the verbal paradigm is a very rich one as regards the number and nicety of its distinctions. The prepositions in Turkish are all postpositive affixes; many proper prepositions, however, are borrowed by it from the Arabic and Persian, and are placed and construed according to the usage of those languages. It is almost entirely destitute of any conjunctions except those of Arabic and Persian origin, some of which-as those for and, but, or, if, as, that are in frequent and familiar use, although more in the formal and written style than in the conversational. The place of conjunctions is supplied by gerundives and possessive forms, through means of which the different members of a compound sentence are twined into one, with the principal verb always at the end. This position of the verb, together with the operation of the rule that the determining word must precede the determined, gives the Turkish construction an inverted form which often seems very strange to our apprehension.LITERATURE. The earliest literature produced by any of the divisions of the Turkish race is that of the Uigurs, a remote eastern branch of the family, who originally occupied the country south of Lake Baikal, but later established themselves about the Tangnu Tagh, and played a conspicuous part in the contests and migrations of central Asia during several centuries, until their nationality was swallowed up in the Mongol empire, about A. D. 1200. Something of culture and Christianity was communicated to them from Syria, doubtless by Nestorian missionaries; and their scanty alphabet, of 14 characters, formed from the Syriac, became later the parent of the Mongol and Mantchoo alphabets. Most of the Uigur literature is lost, and of what remains only few relics have found their way to Europe; little is known of it in detail, although it has been made to yield some information respecting the history of the people. They are said by the Chinese to have received and translated the Chinese classics and histories, and they are known also to have adopted to some extent the Buddhist doctrines and literature. The second era of Turkish culture dates from the conquest by Turkish tribes of the countries of Mohammedan Asia, beginning with the latter half of the 10th century. Overrunning first the north-eastern provinces of Iran, and finding there the new Persian literature commencing its career, their wild chiefs became its admirers, patrons, and imitators, and the Turkish mind and language received that strong Persian impress which they have ever since borne. The eastern Turkish literature, or that produced beyond the Caspian, is usually called the Jagataian, from the name given to that country in the partition of the Mongol empire. It is much less abundant, and also much less known, than the literature