of the western branch. Its most flourishing period was from the time of Tamerlane (1400) to that of Baber (died 1530). Its most admired author is Mir Ali Shir, the vizier of Sultan Hussein, and a munificent patron of Persian authors, particularly of the poet Jami; his most interesting work, perhaps, is his collection of biographies of earlier Jagataian poets, with specimens of their productions. Of prime importance also are the memoirs of his own life and times by Sultan Baber, the conqueror of Hindostan and founder of the Mongol dynasty which has only just become finally extinct; they cover a period of nearly 40 years, and are written with entire simplicity and naturalness. The astronomical works prepared at Samarcand, under the patronage and direction of Ulugh Beg (died 1449), grandson of Tamerlane, deserve honorable notice.-The literature of the western, or Osmanli Turks, to which alone we usually apply the name of Turkish literature, is exceedingly rich, but it is, upon the whole, of inferior interest, because it contains so little that is original and distinctively national in style and spirit. It is mainly an imitation, more or less successful, of Persian models; or, in part, of Arabic also. As the language of the Osmanlis is crowded full of Persian words, compounds, phrases, forms of construction even, so is their history, their philosophy, their poetry, a re-working of Persian material, an echo of Persian taste. The history of the Osmanli literature commences with that of Osmanli nationality; even before the power of the dynasty was established by the capture of Constantinople, works had been produced which the nation has never let perish, and has hardly excelled; prominent among the great names of this era are those of Sheikhi, the romantic poet, and also the ablest physician of his time, of Solyman Chelebi, of Nesimi the free-thinker, &c. But the most flourishing period in the whole history of the literature was the following century, the 16th, chiefly during the reigns of Solyman the Magnificent and his son Selim. Early in the century wrote Meshihi, renowned as an elegiast, and Kemal Pasha Zadeh, a man of universal learning, and an admired author in many different departments, especially in history and in Moslem jurisprudence. Both these branches are of great importance and prominence in the Turkish literature. The latter of them-of inferior interest to us, but of the highest consequence to the Turks themselves, in its double aspect, religious and legal, and also indispensable to those who would fully understand the internal life of the nation-is illustrated by an unbroken series of great writers. In history, beside general and independent authors, such as Mohammed Effendi, Bechevi, Haji Khalfah, &c., deserve especial notice the line of official historiographers and annalists of the realm, commencing with Saad-ed-Deen; among his successors may be particularly mentioned Naima, Reshid, Izzi, and Vasif. Notwithstanding the turgid and affected style of

the official historians, they are most valuable authorities for the history of the Ottoman empire, in its internal and its external relations. Saad-ed-Deen wrote under Solyman, and has been excelled by none who came after him in dignity and philosophic spirit; he brought the story of the rise and growth of the Turkish power down to 1526. Of the same period is Laini'i, one of the most highly esteemed of Turkish authors, and in some departments quite unsurpassed. His works are of varied character, in both prose and verse, and include many translations from the Persian. Fasli, distinguished by depth of thought and tenderness of sentiment, lived till 1563. But the chief ornament of the century is Baki, the acknowledged prince of Turkish lyric poets, and ranked by the orientals with the Persian Hafiz and the Arab Motanebbi in the trio of unrivalled masters of song. He died at a great age in 1600. A new period of literary activity and excellence, although decidedly inferior to that already referred to, followed in the 17th century, under the patronage of the great vizier Köprili, in the reign of Mohammed IV. Most worthy of note here are Nebi, the most admired poet of the century, Nefi, the first of Turkish satirists, Naima the historian, and Haji Khalfah, the historian, geographer, biographer, and encyclopædist, a man of immense learning and industry, whose history of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature, in Arabic, is a chief authority upon its subject, for both the East and the West. In the 18th century, the distinguished vizier Raghib Pasha is eminent both as an author and as a patron of learning; but among the innumerable writers, in every department, of the last century or two, there are few who deserve to be particularly noticed; we may mention merely Said Rufet Effendi, Aini Effendi, and Pertev Effendi as the most esteemed poets. The Turks have done little for the grammatical and lexicographical illustration of their own language, but, on the other hand, a great deal for that of the Arabic and Persian. The press was introduced into Constantinople early in the 18th century, by Ibrahim Effendi, and, both there and elsewhere, has been actively engaged in publishing the most important works in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, especially the latter (including the series of official histories), together with hosts of less valuable or altogether insignificant productions. Many translations have been made by the Turks of European as well as oriental works. The most accessible and useful helps to the study of Turkish are, of grammars, those of Davids (London, 1832) and Redhouse (in French, Paris, 1846); Kazem-Beg's grammar (in Russian; but in German by Zenker, Leipsic, 1848) includes also the other dialects, and is valuable for the comparative study of the language; Böhtlingk's Yakoot grammar (in German, St. Petersburg, 1851) is also important in this bearing. Of chrestomathies, we have one by Dieterici (in French, Berlin, 1854), and Bar

ker's reading book, grammar, and vocabulary (London, 1854). The best dictionaries are those of Kieffer and Bianchi (2d edition, Paris, 1843-'6, Turkish-French), and Redhouse (London, 1856-'7); a new and more complete one, by Zenker, explained in French and German, is now (1862) upon the point of appearing. See also Max Müller, "Science of Language" (London and New York, 1862).

TURKS, one of the most important branches of the Turanian family, for an account of whose linguistic and ethnological affinities the reader is referred to the articles on the TURANIAN RACE AND LANGUAGES, and TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. In former ethnological classifications they were sometimes set down as a Caucasian race, and in physical characteristics some of their tribes are nearly or quite what has been termed Caucasian; but more recent science shows that with the Indo-European family they have no connection. The first traces we find of them are as dwellers upon the northern slopes of the Altai range and along the valleys of the Tang-nu mountains, between the Irtish and Yenisei rivers, on the confines of Siberia and China. From this region a portion of them emigrated S. W. into the country now known as Independent Toorkistan, occupying the valleys of the Jaxartes and Oxus; another party, taking a S. S. E. course, passed beyond the Altai, crossed the great desert and the Thianshan mountains, and established themselves in the vicinity of Koko-nor and around the waters of the Hoang-ho. Here they led a nomadic life, following the course of the rivers which afforded pasturage to their flocks and herds, and depending upon these and the resources of the chase for a subsistence. A small number of their tribes preferred a permanent settle ment, and engaged in agricultural pursuits; but the great body were for ages nomads, and by their frequent excursions for plunder into the Chinese towns and villages became the terror of that industrious but timid race. This branch of the Turkish family, occupying N. W. China, were called by the Chinese Hiung-nu ("vile slaves"), but proved too powerful for them for several centuries; and their empire in the 2d century B. C. extended, it is said, from the sea of Japan to the Volga, and embraced the whole of central Asia and a considerable portion of Siberia. They intermarried with the imperial family of China, and held the Chinese nation as vassals. At length, near the commencement of the Christian era, the Chinese emperor, by the aid of barbarian allies, defeated the Hiung-nu, and by encouraging divisions between their tribes contributed to their final overthrow. In A. D. 90 that portion of the Hiung-nu empire occupying the region S. of the Altai united with the Chinese in a war upon the northern portion, which resulted in their expulsion from the territory they had hitherto occupied, and their return to their former home in Independent Toorkistan. Before the commencement of the Christian era, a tribe of

Turks had wandered westward as far as the Don; they are mentioned by Pliny under the name of Turcæ, and by Pomponius Mela under that of Iurcæ; while other tribes had not long after penetrated into the mountainous regions of Asia Minor. In the 4th and 5th centuries of the Christian era, a portion of the Turks who had remained in the N. W. of China succeeded in conquering two provinces of that country, which they organized as independent kingdoms, to which the Chinese give the names of Tchao and Northern Liang; but the greater part of those who were driven out in the 3d century rallied around Lake Balkash, and after the 5th century made no further separate appearance in history. In the early part of the 6th century a new Turkish empire, apparently having its nucleus in what is now Independent Toorkistan and Soongaria, threatened the peace of Asia. They renewed their conflicts with China at the E. and with Persia at the S. W., and in 569 formed an alliance with Justin II., then emperor of Constantinople, for the overthrow of the Sassanides. But this Turkish empire (which the Chinese called Tu-kiu), like all the attempts of the Turks at imperial domination, was an agglomeration of dissimilar peoples in one huge nation, with no common bond of union or citizenship, and its very vastness contributed to its weakness. In 744 the empire was overthrown by the attacks of the Hoei-he or Hoei-hu, as the Chinese named them (the Uigurs of western writers), another Turkish tribe who had previously been subjects of the Tu-kiu empire. There were at this time, and had been for some centuries, 8 distinct Turkish tribes or nations in central Asia. The Uigurs never attained to the vast power of their predecessors, but they were the first of the Turkish tribes to adopt a written language. At first they were Buddhists; but about the 4th century they became very generally the disciples of Zoroaster, and in the 9th or 10th century embraced Islamism, which had many doctrines suited to their taste. In the West their empire was overthrown in 848 by the Kirgheez Tartars; but they maintained an independent kingdom in the valleys of the Thian-shan range till about A. D. 1000, when the increasing power of the Khitans in China compelled their emigration westward. The invasion of Genghis Khan overthrew the last remains of the Turkish empire in central Asia; but the prominent officers of that conqueror and his successors were taken from this very tribe of Uigurs on account of their superior intelligence. But while thus for the time waning in power in their ancient seats, the Turks were acquiring new territories in the West. In the 6th and 7th centuries they were already in possession of an extensive region in what is now Asiatic Turkey, and were pressing forward toward S. E. Europe. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Tooloonides and Ikshides, who were the reigning dynasties in Egypt, were Turks. In the 9th century a Turkish dynasty, the Taherides, ruled in Persia;

and their successors, the Gaznevides and the Ghurides, extended their sway from Persia to India between the 10th and 12th centuries. A more famous Turkish dynasty however than either of these was that of the Seljooks (see SELJOOKS), whose dominion extended in the latter part of the 11th century from the frontiers of China to the vicinity of Constantinople. Like its predecessors, this vast empire crumbled to pieces from its want of homogeneity, and the Seljookian sultans submitted to be the tributaries of the Mongol emperors. At the beginning of the 14th century the Ottoman empire was founded by Othman, a Seljook chief, and in the succeeding centuries spread over a vast territory in Asia and Europe. (See TURKEY.) The Turkish tribes which had submitted to the Mongol invasion in 1257, and still remained in the region of the Thian-shan, the Aral, and the Caspian, sent out colonies N. of the Caspian into that portion of southern Russia lying on the borders of the Black sea, where, under the name of Tartars, several tribes of them still occupy extensive territories. While acknowledging the Russian sway, they are still zealous Mohammedans. The Tartar invaders of Toorkistan, instead of impressing their own habits and language upon the Turks of that country, gradually became identified with the people they had conquered; and eventually, the Turkish element again predominating, in the age following the death of Tamerlane they had invaded and subdued Armenia and the countries bordering on the Tigris and Euphrates. From this region they were expelled in the 16th century by the Soofees. In the same century the Usbecks, a Turkish tribe, primarily inhabiting the southern provinces of Chinese Toorkistan below the Thian-shan mountains, and said to be descendants of the Uigurs and the Naimans, made their way westward and overran not only Independent Toorkistan, but the countries adjacent as far as the Euphrates, and were, after maintaining their power for more than a century, reduced to subjection by still another Turkish tribe, the Toorkomans. The Toorkomans and Usbecks are now, in the ancient seat of the Turks, the principal remaining tribes of that powerful race. The Kalmucks between the lower Volga and Don, the Bashkirs between the Volga and Irtish, and the Yakoots on the banks of the Lena, are also Turkish tribes, in which there has been some admixture of the Mongol element, but who yet preserve sufficiently the Turkish characteristics to be fairly admitted as belonging to the great Turkish family. The Yakoots are the only Turkish race which professes Shamanism.

TURK'S ISLANDS, or TURQUES, a group of islets which lie in the S. E. extremity of the Bahama archipelago, about 60 m. N. from the coast of the island of Hayti; pop. estimated at 1,200. Grand Key or Turk's is the principal island, and salt is the only article exported from the group. The number of the population fluctuates greatly at different times, as many people

are in the habit of coming over annually from the Bermudas to work at salt raking, returning when the season is over. This and the Caicos group constitute a U. S. consulate, of which the ports of entry are Grand Turk, Salt Cay, East Harbor, and West Caicos. The value of imports from the United States in 1860 was $87,329.70, and of salt exported to the United States $107,978.74. American vessels entered, 164, tonnage 36,534, which was a decrease of 68 vessels from the previous year, while the British shipping in the American trade had increased. The total exports from the district in 1858 amounted to about $200,000, and the imports to $175,000.

TURMERIC, the rhizoma of the East Indian plant curcuma longa, and also of the C. rotunda, of the natural order zingiberacea. The root is perennial, tuberous, and internally of a deep yellow or orange color. The plant is cultivated in various parts of Asia, particularly in China, Bengal, and Java. The root obtained from China is said to be the best. It is received in short cylindrical pieces about as thick as the finger, of a yellowish brown or greenish yellow externally, hard and compact, and easily pulverized to a yellow powder. It has a peculiar odor, and a warm, bitterish, and feebly aromatic taste. It yields to alcohol and ether a yellow coloring matter termed curcumine, the color of which is rapidly changed by alkalies to reddish brown; a property which is made use of in chemical analyses as a test for the presence of alkalies. For this purpose white unsized paper is dyed with a tincture or decoction of turmeric, and is kept in the laboratory carefully preserved from access of acid or alkaline vapors. This is what is called turmeric paper. The root had formerly some reputation as a medicine, especially for jaundice and other visceral diseases. It resembles ginger in its properties as a stimulant aromatic; and in India it is used chiefly as a condiment, especially in curries. In dyeing it affords a fine yellow color, but not permanent. In pharmacy it is employed to give a color to ointments and other preparations.

TURNBULL, ROBERT, D.D., an American clergyman and author, born at Whiteburn, Linlithgowshire, Scotland, Sept. 10, 1809. After being graduated at Glasgow university, he attended the lectures of Chalmers and Wilson at Edinburgh, studied theology under Drs. Dick and Mitchell, united with the Baptist denomination, preached for a short time in Scotland and England, and came to the United States in 1833, settling in Danbury, Conn. In 1835 he accepted an appointment as a home missionary to Michigan, where he became pastor of the Baptist church in Detroit. Two years later he removed to Hartford, Conn., and became pastor of the South Baptist church in that city. În 1839 he was called to the pastorate of the Boylston street (now Harvard street) Baptist church in Boston, where he remained 6 years, since which time he has been pastor of the

first Baptist church in Hartford. In 1851 he received the degree of D.D. from Madison university. He has published "The Theatre" (Boston, 1840); "Olympia Morata" (Boston, 1842); "Vinet's Vital Christianity," translated, with an introduction and notes (Boston, 1846); "The Genius of Scotland" (New York, 1847); "The Genius of Italy" (New York, 1849); "Theophany, or the Manifestation of God in Christ" (Hartford, 1851); "Vinet's Miscellanies" (New York, 1852); "Pulpit Orators of France and Switzerland" (New York, 1853); "Christ in History, or the Central Power" (Boston, 1856); and "Life Pictures, or Sketches from a Pastor's Note Book" (New York, 1857). He has edited Sir William Hamilton's "Discussions on Philosophy," with a historical introduction, and was for several years the senior editor of the "Christian Review," a Baptist quarterly periodical.

TURNBULL, ROBERT JAMES, an American political writer, born in New Smyrna, Florida, in Jan. 1775, died in South Carolina in 1833. His father was an English physician, and his mother a Greek lady of Smyrna in Asia Minor. The father, Dr. Turnbull, in connection with Lord Hillsborough, obtained grants from the English government about the year 1772 for settling a Greek colony in Florida, which had been ceded to Great Britain by Spain in 1763. About 1,500 persons from the Mediterranean islands, chiefly Greeks and Minorcans, were induced to emigrate, and by them New Smyrna was founded. The project, however, was on the whole a failure; and Dr. Turnbull, adhering to the popular side in the revolution, forfeited his grants from government, and removed to Charleston, S. C. His son Robert James was educated in England, and after his return to America studied law in Charleston and Philadelphia, was admitted to the bar, and practised in Charleston until 1810, when he retired to the country, where he had a large plantation. His first essay as a political writer was a treatise on the penitentiary system, which attracted attention both in America and England. In 1827 he wrote many articles for the "Charleston Mercury," which were subsequently collected and published under the name of "The Crisis," and became the text book of the nullification party. In 1830 Mr. Turnbull published a treatise on "The Tribunal of Dernier Resort," in which he argued that "each state has the unquestionable right to judge of the infractions of the constitution, and to interpose its sovereign powers to arrest their progress and to protect its citizens." In 1831 he took a leading part in the "Free Trade Convention" which assembled at Columbia, S. C., and was the author of the report put forth by that body. He was conspicuous also in a similar convention which met at Charleston in Feb. 1832. On July 4, 1832, he delivered an oration before an assemblage of the nullification party, which is said to have had a marked effect upon the next election. In Nov. 1832,

he was a delegate to the convention of the people of South Carolina which passed the nullifying ordinance, and he wrote the address of that convention to the people. After the proclamation of President Jackson was received in South Carolina, and volunteers were raised in addition to the militia already organized to resist the federal government, he was the first to enlist as a private soldier. A lofty monument in Charleston, erected by the nullification party, commemorates his services to their cause.

TURNER, EDWARD, a Scottish chemist, born in 1798, died in London, Feb. 13, 1839. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and in 1828 was appointed professor of chemistry in University college, then called the university of London, a position which he filled until his death. He is chiefly known by his "Elements of Chemistry," which has passed through numerous editions. His labors were devoted principally to inorganic chemistry.

TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM, an English painter, born in London, April 23, 1775, died in Chelsea, Dec. 19, 1851. His father pursued the calling of a barber and hairdresser in Maiden lane, Covent Garden, and in this neighborhood the painter passed his childhood-a circumstance noticed with some particularity by Ruskin on account of its presumed influence upon his style and thoughts in after years. Having at 5 years of age accompanied his father on a professional visit to the house of a Mr. Tomkinson, he immediately afterward drew from memory a copy of a lion on an emblazoned coat of arms which he had seen there with such accuracy as to astonish his parents, who thereupon, it is said, conceived the idea of making a painter of him. Thenceforth his pencil was seldom idle, and, with water colors and brushes supplied by his father, he made sketches of the principal objects which his limited field of observation presented. After a year or two of schooling, during which he occupied himself more with sketching trees, cattle, and landscapes from nature, than with books, he was employed by the engraver John Raphael Smith to color prints, to which occupation succeeded the painting of skies, backgrounds, and other accessories for architectural designs. The example of Cozens and the friendship of Girtin, two of the founders of the British school of water colors, led him to attempt higher things; and in 1790, having the year previous become a student at the royal academy, he exhibited a water color "View of the Archbishop's Palace, Lambeth." Other works depicting scenes in the neighborhood of London followed, and with each year he showed increasing power and originality, infusing more light into his pictures than other contemporary artists, and occasionally essaying some novel effect derived from a close study of nature. In 1793 he was engaged to illustrate Walker's "Itinerant" and the "Pocket Magazine;" and during the next 5 or 6 years he made sketches for this purpose in many

parts of England, filling up his intervals of leisure by giving lessons in drawing. Although until near the commencement of the present century he painted chiefly in water colors, a branch of the art then by no means in high estimation and but imperfectly developed, the brilliancy and singular fidelity of his finished drawings began to attract attention, and by many critics of the day his preeminence in landscape painting was even then predicted. The royal academy ratified this opinion by electing him in 1799 an associate, and in 1802 an academician. He had hitherto confined himself chiefly to representations of English or Welsh scenery, but with the acquisition of academic rank he put forth his strength in such ambitious subjects as "The Fifth Plague of Egypt," "The Army of the Medes destroyed in the Desert by a Whirlwind," and "The Tenth Plague of Egypt," executed in oils; but these, in spite of their imaginative power, were less popular than his "Dutch Boats in a Gale," "Fishermen upon a Lee Shore in Squally Weather," or "Falls of the Clyde." The surpassing excellence of his representations of marine scenery and of water under all conditions was first recognized in the latter class of pictures. In 1802 he first visited France, commemorating his arrival in that country by a picture of "Calais Pier;" and thenceforth at irregular periods he made extended and solitary tours through France, Switzerland, and the Rhine land, the fruits of which were presented in manifold sketches, drawings, and finished pictures. In 1807 he was elected professor of perspective to the royal academy, and in this capacity delivered a few lectures, which according to the general account were little creditable to his abilities as an artist. He seems to have been unable to express himself with sufficient clearness to interest his classes, and cared little about imparting instruction, unless he perceived an ability on the part of the pupil to profit by his obscure hints. "Turner, though he was professor of perspective to the royal academy," says Ruskin, his panegyrist, "did not know what he professed, and never, as far as I remember, drew a single building in true perspective in his life; he drew them only with as much perspective as suited him." With his election as an academician terminates what is known as the first style of Turner, or that in which he studied and imitated the methods of Wilson, Gainsborough, and others of his predecessors, and elaborated the details of nature with a sobriety of color approximating to coldness. His second style, which in general terms may be said to embrace the period between 1802 and 1832 (although such a division is purely arbitrary, and is to be adopted for the sake of convenience only), commenced with an imitation of Claude Lorraine; and the desire to rival and if possible to surpass his model led to the publication in 1808 of his Liber Studiorum, the superiority of which over the Liber Veritatis of Claude does

not however afford a fair test of the comparative merits of the two painters; Turner's studies being elaborate and careful illustrations of all the principal forms of landscape composition, while Claude's are but incidental memoranda of pictures. In further competition with Claude he painted his "Sun rising through a Mist," Crossing the Brook," "Apuleia in search of Apuleius," "Dido building Carthage," and some others of less note; but his individuality soon broke through the shackles of mere imitation, and subsequent to 1815 he worked according to his own ideas, indifferent to the examples of preceding masters. The variety of subjects he attempted during the 12 years previous to this time affords a curious illustration of the originality and audacity of his genius. Not content with the production of works like the "Shipwreck," the "Wreck of the Minotaur," and the "Snow Storm-Hannibal crossing the Alps," which presented with incomparable power the elements in their wildest fury, or like the "Edinburgh from Calton Hill" and the "Falls of Schaffhausen," he ransacked Lempriere's dictionary for subjects, painted humorous and whimsical pieces, such as a "Country Blacksmith disputing upon the Price charged to the Butcher for Shoeing his Pony," and even attempted sacred history, having in 1803 exhibited a "Holy Family." From 1815 his conceptions expanded with his increasing observation and knowledge of the phenomena of nature, and subsequent to his first visit to Italy in 1819 his style may be said to have matured into its full splendor. Between 1820 and 1840, when he returned from his third and last visit to Italy, the second having been made in 1829, he was perhaps greatest and most original; and his "Bay of Baim," "Ulysses deriding Polyphemus," Caligula's Palace and Bridge,' "Childe Harold, or Modern Italy," "Slavers throwing overboard the Dead and Dying-Typhoon coming on," ""The Fighting Téméraire towed to her last Moorings," and other works produced within this period, represent the highest efforts of landscape painting in composition, in color, and in the general vein of poetic sentiment which pervades them. The tendency toward brilliancy of light and color which several of these works evinced became during the last 10 years of his life the most marked feature of his style; and, disregarding individuality of form or local color, he made light with all its prismatic varieties the sole object of his studies. The consequences were lamentable to his reputation, and his remaining works, loosely executed, untrue to nature, and apparently without meaning or form, excited the ridicule or pity of most who beheld them. It was said that the hanging committees were sometimes in doubt which side of his pictures to suspend uppermost, and that the artist had by mistake forwarded his palette set with colors instead of a picture. There are however some who profess to see amid the extravagances of his latest style a solid foundation of truth