of the Law of Nations," by Henry Wheaton, have become standard works of reference in Europe; and the treatises of Edward Livings ton on penal law, of Simon Greenleaf on evidence, of Willard Phillips on insurance, of F. Wharton on criminal law, beside many by David Hoffman, St. George Tucker, J. K. Angell, John Bouvier, G. T. Curtis, L. S. Cushing, W. A. and John Duer, F. Hilliard, Murray Hoffman, Theophilus Parsons, Theodore Sedgwick, W. W. Story, and others, are creditable to the legal learning of the country. -The theological and religious writers of the period comprise a numerous and able body, whose works, devoted rather to practical illustration than to theoretical speculation, have in many instances become standard authorities on the subjects of which they treat, and, in view of the multiplicity of sects from which they emanate, express unusually broad and catholic views. In the department of biblical criticism American theologians are everywhere honorably distinguished. Of Presbyterian writers, the most eminent are Samuel Miller (1769-1850), author, among other works, of several treatises on the distinguishing features of Presbyterianism; Edward Robinson (born 1794), best known by his researches in biblical geography; Albert Barnes (1798), whose "Notes on the Gospels" and commentaries on other portions of Scripture are widely known in America and England; Nicholas Murray (Kirwan), author of several controversial publications; S. Davies, Ashbel Green (1762-1848), Gardiner Spring (1785), Charles Hodge (1797), James Richards (1793-1843), R. J. Breckinridge (1800), Archibald, J. W., and Joseph A. Alexander, T. H. Skinner, I. S. Spencer, William Adams, Thomas Smyth, Robert Baird, J. H. Thornwell, and J. B. Walker. The Trinitarian Congregationalists are represented by Moses Stuart (1780-1852), author of various scriptural commentaries, and distinguished as a philologist; Leonard Woods (1798-1854), Horace Bushnell (born 1802), Edwards A. Park (1808), Lyman Beecher (1775), Edward Beecher (1804), N. W. Taylor, Bennet Tyler, E. N. Kirk, Nehemiah Adams, Mark Hopkins, Nathan Lord, Joel Hawes, Leonard Bacon, G. B. Cheever, J. P. Thompson, T. C. Upham, J. Torrey, W. G. T. Shedd, Henry B. Smith, and George Punchard, author of a "History of Congregationalism," &c. At about the commencement of this period a memorable controversy took place in New England between Samuel Worcester, representing the conservative or orthodox Congregationalists, and W. E. Channing in behalf of the Unitarians, who thenceforth became an independent, and, in proportion to their numbers, an important sect. The writings of Channing had great influence in moulding the opinions now generally held by Unitarians in America, and contemporary with him were a body of divines and scholars of considerable literary culture, resident chiefly in Boston and its vicinity, and whose education was acquired at Harvard college, where a large

proportion of the Unitarian clergy have since been graduated. Prominent among these were Andrews Norton (1786-1853), author of a treatise on the "Genuineness of the Gospels;" Henry Ware, Henry Ware, jr., and William Ware, J. G. Palfrey, Jared Sparks, N. L. Frothingham, James Walker, Orville Dewey, F. W. P. Greenwood, W. H. Furness, and G. W. Burnap. Of somewhat later date are A. P. Peabody, Samuel Osgood, F. H. Hedge, G. E. Ellis, H. W. Bellows, A. A. Livermore, C. A. Bartol, A. B. Muzzey, and J. F. Clarke. Distinguished from these is a new rationalistic school of Unitarianism, chiefly represented by Theodore Parker (1810-'60), whose writings evince profound scholarship and logi cal method, and furnish frequent examples of rhetorical beauty and force. On political and social questions he also wrote and spoke with peculiar earnestness. The principal writers of the Protestant Episcopal denomination are Bishop C. P. McIlvaine, author of a treatise on the "Evidences of Christianity;" Bishop T. C. Brownell, author of commentaries on the "Book of Common Prayer;" Bishops Alonzo Potter, George Burgess, J. M. Wainwright, J. H. Hopkins, and W. I. Kip; S. F. Jarvis, S. H. Tyng, F. L. Hawks, J. S. Stone, A. C. Coxe, S. H. Turner, G. T. Bedell, R. Á. Hallam, T. W. Coit, F. D. Huntingdon, Calvin Colton, G. C. Verplanck, A. H. Vinton, J. A. Spencer, and Samuel Seabury. Among the Baptists, the most noted are President Francis Wayland, William Hague, H. B. Hackett, H. J. Ripley, Baron Stow, Alvah Hovey, W. R. Williams, T. J. Conant, J. Belcher, R. Turnbull, Richard Fuller, and J. B. Jeter; and among the Methodists, Nathan Bangs, P. D. Gorrie, John and Robert Emory, Stephen Olin, H. B. Bascom, D. D. Whedon, J. McClintock, Abel Stevens, W. P. Strickland, D. Curry, James Floy, D. Wise, Osmyn Baker, Thomas Stockton, B. F. Tefft, and Alexander Green. The Roman Catholics are represented by Archbishops F. P. and P. R. Kenrick and John Hughes, the last two chiefly distinguished as controversial writers; Bishops J. England and H. Spaulding; I. T. Hecker and O. A. Brownson, who has written several of his most noticeable review articles on theological subjects. In other denominations the prominent names are George Bush, a follower of Swedenborg, and author of a treatise on the "Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body" and numerous commentaries and miscellaneous writings; Philip Schaff, J. W. Nevin, and H. Harbaugh, of the German Reformed, and S. S. Schmucker, of the Lutheran church; Hosea Ballou, E. H. Chapin, and T. Whittemore, of the Universalist denomination; and T. Evans and S. M. Janney, members of the society of Friends. Many of the above, including Brownson, Parker, Walker, and Wayland, have written on moral philosophy and metaphysics. The school of Locke is represented by Francis Bowen, Frederic Beasley, and others; while Parker, Walker, James Marsh, and Emerson have borrowed more or less from the German

idealists and the French eclectics. C. S. Henry and O. W. Wight have made the philosophy of Cousin familiar to American readers; J. Marsh has expounded the doctrines of Coleridge; and Samuel Tyler has produced, in his "Discourse on the Baconian Philosophy," one of the most profound metaphysical disquisitions of the century. Other contributors to this department are Herman Hooker, Hubbard Winslow, Joseph Haven, H. P. Tappan, Asa Mahan, T. C. Upham, Henry James, Roswell Park, W. T. G. Shedd, W. D. Wilson, Job Durfee, L. P. Hickok (whose systematic writings on the higher branches of philosophy are among the ablest specimens of profound discussion), and George Payne. Under the head of philology may be mentioned the two great dictionaries of the English language by Noah Webster (17581843) and Joseph E. Worcester (born 1784), which have superseded all others in popular use in the United States; the "Lectures on the English Language" and other works by G. P. Marsh; the "Dictionary of Americanisms," by J. R. Bartlett; and the writings of Goold Brown, W. S. Fowler, and others who have devoted themselves particularly to the structure and etymology of the English language. The aboriginal languages of North America have been treated by John Pickering, Albert Gallatin, H. R. Schoolcraft, P. E. Duponceau, E. G. Squier, W. W. Turner, and Mrs. Eastman; and grammars and vocabularies of the most important dialects have been prepared by missionaries and others specially interested in the subject. In oriental literature the investigations of American philologists have been of great value; and to American scholars, and particularly missionaries, Europe is largely indebted for its knowledge of a number of the languages of eastern Asia, Africa, and the Pacific islands. Among those who have gained eminence by their contributions to biblical philology are Edward Robinson and Tayler Lewis, both also distinguished as Greek scholars; Moses Stuart, S. H. Turner, J. W. Gibbs, B. B. Edwards, G. R. Noyes, George Bush, T. J. Conant, and H. B. Hackett. In other branches of oriental philology the chief works are the "Burmese Dictionary," by Adoniram Judson; the "English and Chinese Vocabulary," by S. Wells Williams; and the "Grammar and Dictionary of the Karen Language," by F. Mason; beside the writings of W. W. Turner, Professors W. D. Whitney and E. E. Salisbury of Yale college, J. G. Palfrey, E. Riggs, W. W. Greenough, and Charles Kraitsir, several of whom have contributed important papers to the "Journal of the American Oriental Society." Among miscellaneous philological writers may be enumerated C. A. Goodrich, Professor Schele de Vere, and Horatio Hale, author of the "Ethnography and Philology of the United States Exploring Expedition" under the command of Capt. Wilkes.-The contributions to ethnology comprise some of the most costly works which have yet appeared from the American press.

Among these may be enumerated the "Crania Americana,' "Crania Ægyptica," and other works by S. G. Morton (1799-1851); the "Biblical and Physical History of Man," by J. C. Nott (born 1804); the elaborate "Types of Mankind" and "Indigenous Races of the Earth," both profusely illustrated, by J. C. Nott and G. R. Gliddon; the "Diversity of Origin of Human Races," by Louis Agassiz (born 1807); the "Doctrine of the Origin of the Human Race," by John Bachman; the "Progress of Ethnology," by J. R. Bartlett; the "Races of Men and their Geographical Distribution," by Charles Pickering; and other works by Arnold Guyot, F. W. Redfield, T. Smyth, and A. Meigs. Intimately connected with this department are the works illustrating the origin and antiquities of the aboriginal tribes of America, the most important of which are the elaborate series by H. R. Schoolcraft, and more particularly his "Historical and Statistical Information" previously mentioned; the "American Antiquities and Researches into the Origin of the Red Race," by A. W. Bradford; the "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," by E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis; the "Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York," and the "Serpent Symbol," by E. G. Squier; and various writings by Albert Gallatin, J. L. Stephens, W. W. Turner, G. Catlin, and others.-The number of works devoted to travel and exploration is greatly in excess of that of either of the preceding periods; and the contributions to geographical knowledge, particularly on the American continent, have been numerous and important. Among the works illustrating European travel and scenery may be mentioned "Pleasant Memories of Pleasant Lands," by Mrs. Sigour ney; "The Old World and the New," by Orville Dewey; "Letters from Abroad," by Miss Sedgwick; "A Year in Spain" and Spain Revisited," by A. S. Mackenzie; "Pencillings by the Way," by N. P. Willis; "The Pilgrim in the Shadow of Mont Blanc," by G. B. Cheever; "Six Months in Italy," by G. S. Hillard; "Views a-Foot" and other works by Bayard Taylor (born 1825), one of the most active and entertaining of modern travellers; "Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands," by Mrs. Stowe; "Hungary in 1851" and "The Norse Folk," by C. L. Brace; and many by W. C. Bryant, William Ware, Caleb Cushing, H. T. Cheever, J. T. Headley, Calvin Colton, Pliny Miles, Benjamin Silliman, S. I. Prime, Horace Greeley, H. T. Tuckerman, J. A. Dix; R. Sanderson, Mrs. Kemble, Mrs. Octavia W. Le Vert, Miss A. C. Johnson, and others. The most noticeable books upon the East are the two series of "Biblical Researches in the Holy Land," by Edward Robinson, the result of an extended tour in the East, and which are regarded by biblical scholars everywhere as of the highest value; "Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petræa, and the Holy Land," by J. L. Stephens; "The Land and the Book," by W. M. Thomson;

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"The Pathways and Abiding Places of Our Lord," by J. M. Wainwright; "Nile Notes of a Howadji" and "The Howadji in Syria," by G. W. Curtis; "Boat Life in Egypt and Nubia" and "Tent Life in the Holy Land," by W. C. Prime;" Yusef," by J. Ross Browne; "The Middle Kingdom," by S. Wells Williams; beside others by Bayard Taylor, W. Colton, Horatio Southgate, Stephen Olin, S. I. Prime, and R. B. Minturn. Books of maritime adventure or travel may be represented by W. S. W. Ruschenberger's "Voyage round the World" and "Three Years in the Pacific;" R. H. Dana, jr.'s "Two Years before the Mast;" Walter Colton's "Deck and Port," and other works; H. T. Cheever's "Island World of the Pacific;" H. A. Wise's "Los Gringos;" and Charles Nordhoff's "Man-of-War Life," and other highly graphic narratives of a similar character. Of works relating to the United States and its territories, the most important are Irving's "Astoria" and "Tour on the Prairies," which in point of style and interest are not inferior to any thing he wrote; Timothy Flint's "Residence and Wanderings in the Valley of the Mississippi;" the various narratives of travel on the upper Mississippi by Schoolcraft; Bayard Taylor's "El Dorado;" the accurate and graphic "Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,' "Journey through Texas," and "Journey in the Back Country," by F. L. Olmsted; and many by George Catlin, G. W. Kendall, J. T. Headley, T. B. Thorpe, H. Greeley, C. W. Webber, F. Parkman, and others. The geography and antiquities of Central America have been elaborately described by J. L. Stephens in his "Travels in Central America" and "Incidents of Travel in Yucatan;" by E. G. Squier in his "Nicaragua" and "Notes on Central America;" and by B. M. Norman in his "Ruined Cities of Yucatan." Among other works relating to the American hemisphere are F. F. Holton's "New Granada;" C. S. Stewart's "Brazil and La Plata;" "Brazil and the Brazilians," by D. P. Kidder and J. C. Fletcher; John Bigelow's "Jamaica in 1850;" R. B. Kimball's "Letters from Cuba" and "Cuba and the Cubans;" W. H. Hurlburt's "Gan Eden, or Pictures of Cuba;" and F. S. Cozzens's "Acadia." A peculiar and important class of books of travel has resulted from the explorations undertaken at various times by the United States government, with a view of adding to the general stock of geographical knowledge, or of developing the resources of its own territory. The most elaborate of these is the "Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition around the World," by Capt. Charles Wilkes, in 5 volumes; and of not less importance to the cause of geographical science are the narratives of exploration among the Rocky mountains and in Oregon and California by Col. John Charles Fremont, for which he received the gold medal of the royal geographical society of Great Britain; and the reports of expeditions to the Red river of Louisiana, by Capt. R. B.

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Marcy; to Texas and New Mexico, by J. R. Bartlett; to Utah, by Capt. Howard Stansbury; to Arizona and the Gila river, by Lieut. Col. W. H. Emory; to the southern hemisphere, by Lieut. J. M. Gilliss; to Japan, by Commodore M. L. Perry; to the Rio de La Plata, by Lieut. T. S. Page; to the Amazon, by Lieuts. W. L. Herndon and L. Gibbon; and to the Dead sea, by Lieut. W. F. Lynch. The chief arctic explorers are Elisha Kent Kane (1820-'57), whose narratives of the two Grinnell expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin are among the most interesting works of their class yet produced; and I. I. Hayes, author of An Arctic Boat Journey." -The wide field of natural history has been explored during this period with results highly creditable to the sagacity and industry of American philosophers. The most important work in this department, and the most costly ever published in the country, is the "Birds of America," by John James Audubon (17801851), remarkable for the vivacity of its descriptive passages and its splendid illustrations. American zoology has been further treated by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, Thomas Nuttall, J. P. Giraud, and John Cassin, who have written on ornithology; by Louis Agassiz, whose publications on comparative embryology, ichthyology, the geographical distribution of animals, and analogous subjects, are of the highest order of merit; by J. E. Holbrook, author of the most complete work on North American herpetology yet published; by Thomas Say, T. M. Harris, and J. L. Le Conte, who have written on entomology; and by Zadoc Thompson, A. A. Gould, B. S. Barton, T. A. Conrad, J. D. Dana, Isaac Lea, Jeffries Wyman, J. Bachman, J. E. De Kay, J. D. Godman, V. G. Audubon, S. Kneeland, jr., and a number of others, who have illustrated various branches of the subject. The most eminent writers on botany are Asa Gray, author of several valuable elementary works and manuals; John Torrey, who is now preparing in conjunction with Gray the most complete American flora yet undertaken; Amos Eaton, Stephen Elliot, Tho mas Nuttall, A. B. Strong, Jacob Bigelow, D. J. Browne, and Alphonso Wood; on geology, President Edward Hitchcock, Samuel Maclure, W. B. and H. D. Rogers, J. G. Percival, Ebenezer Emmons, T. Sterry Hunt, C. T. Jackson, D. D. Owen, J. D. Whitney, J. W. Forster, W. C. Redfield, C. H. Hitchcock, J. T. Hodge, James Hall, Joseph Leidy, H. C. Lea, and W. W. Mather, of whom the last four are also distinguished as palæontologists; and on miner alogy, Professor J. D. Dana, author of a well known "Treatise on Mineralogy," P. Cleveland, L. C. Beck, and C. U. Shepard. The writers on chemistry include Benjamin Silliman and Benjamin Silliman, jr., Robert Hare, C. T. Jackson, J. W. Draper, Joseph Henry, E. N. Horsford, John Torrey, E. L. Youmans, and Campbell Morfit; and in other branches of natural science the most noted names are M. F. Maury, author of the "Physical Geography

of the Sea" and other works, W. C. Redfield, J. P. Espy, and John Brocklesby, distinguished as meteorologists; J. W. Bailey, an eminent microscopist; A. D. Bache, the superintendent of the United States coast survey; Joseph Henry, who has made important discoveries in electro-magnetism; Samuel Forry and Lorin Blodgett, climatologists; and S. C. Walker, B. A. Gould, G. P. Bond, O. M. Mitchel, Denison Olmsted, J. M. Gilliss, Hannah M. Peterson, Maria Mitchell, W. A. Norton, and Elias Loomis, distinguished chiefly as astronomers. The most eminent mathematician whom the country has yet produced is Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838), author of a translation, with a commentary, of Laplace's Mécanique celeste, and of the well known "Practical Navigator," now in almost universal

jamin Peirce, Charles Davies, C. H. Davis, and Thomas Hill. Many of the above named have been contributors to the reports and publications of the Smithsonian institution, or have participated in the scientific labors of the United States exploring expedition and similar undertakings. Of the numerous works on medicine and surgery produced during this period, it will suffice to mention the "Treatise on the Practice of Medicine," by G. B. Wood; "Dispensatory of the United States," by G. B. Wood and F. Bache; "Elements of Medical Jurisprudence," by J. B. and T. Romeyn Beck; "Elements of Pathological Anatomy," by S. D. Gross; "Materia Medica and Therapeutics,' by J. Eberle; "The Principles of Surgery," by W. Gibson; "The Elements of Medicine," by S. H. Dickson; the treatises on "Midwifery" and "Diseases of Females," by W. P. Dewees; the treatise on "Obstetrics," by C. D. Meigs; the "Human Physiology" and "Dictionary of Medical Science," by R. Dunglison; "American Medical Botany" and "Nature in Disease," by Jacob Bigelow; "Letters to a Young Physician," by James Jackson; and "Surgical Observations on Tumors," by J. C. Warren; beside which there are many of reputation by D. Hosack, J. W. Francis, S. G. Morton, J. W. Draper, S. Forry, J. Bell, P. Earle, O. W. Holmes, G. S. Bedford, Horace Green, C. A. Harris, W. E. Horner, P. S. Physick, C. Wistar, Martyn Paine, Valentine Mott, J. Pancoast, L. V. Bell, W. W. Sanger, A. Brigham, L. M. Lawson, T. D. Mitchell, T. D. Mütter, Bennet Dowler, J. A. Swett, Daniel Drake, Charles Caldwell, H. H. Smith, E. Parrish, J. King, A. Stillé, Winslow Lewis, G. Hayward, J. W. Smith, P. Townsend, W. W. Gerhard, J. R. Cox, P. F. Eve, S. F. Condie, J. C. Dalton, and W. H. Van Buren. The principal writers of the homoeopathic school are C. Hering, E. E. Marcy, J. C. Peters, J. H. Pulte, and C. J. Hempel.-The theory of education has occupied a large share of the attention of American writers during this period; and among many valuable works on the subject may be mentioned the "Lectures on EducaVOL. XV.-53

tion," by Horace Mann (1796-1859); "National Education in Europe," by Henry Barnard; "The Theory and Practice of Teaching," by D. P. Page; "The Student's Manual," by John Todd; "University Education," by Chancellor H. P. Tappan: "The School and Schoolmaster," by Bishop Alonzo Potter and G. B. Emerson; beside others by F. A. P. Barnard, William Russell, Barnas Sears, G. F. Thayer, W. A. Alcott, W. C. Woodbridge, Hubbard Winslow, A. B. Alcott, W. H. McGuffey, J. S. Hart, and S. G. Howe. Under this head may also be included the "Five Years in an English University," by C. A. Bristed. The general excellence and enormous production and sale of school books are perhaps the most remarkable features of American literature. It will suffice here to mention the Latin lexicons of F. P. Leverett and E. A. Andrews; the Latin and Greek grammars and elementary books of Andrews, C. C. Felton, Charles Anthon, J. McClintock, J. Hadley, J. R. Boise, A. Crosby, A. Harkness, E. A. Sophocles, P. Bullions, and S. H. Taylor; and the editions of classical authors by President T. D. Woolsey, Anthon, Felton, H. S. Frieze, T. A. Thacher, Tayler Lewis, J. J. Owen, J. L. Lincoln, C. S. Wheeler, and C. K. Dillaway. English grammar and composition have been treated by Samuel Kirkham, Goold Brown, J. Greenleaf, P. Bullions, W. H. Wells, Allan Weld, R. G. Parker, and G. P. Quackenbos; and the spelling books of Noah Webster, C. W. Sanders, and S. Town have had a prodigious circulation. The chief writers of mathematical text books are Daniel Adams, Warren Colburn, C. W. Hackley, O. Davies, E. Loomis, G. R. Perkins, T. Sherwin, B. Greenleaf, F. Emerson, D. Leach, W. M. Gillespie, W. D. Swan, and J. F. Stoddard; and of school geographies, atlases, etc., W. C. Woodbridge, Mrs. Emma Willard, Jesse Olney, J. E. Worcester, R. C. Smith, S. A. Mitchell, F. McNally, and Miss S. S. Cornell.—Among works on the science of war may be mentioned those on military tactics by Lieut. Gen. Winfield Scott (born 1786) and W. J. Hardee; A. Mordecai's "Artillery for the United States Land Service;" D. H. Mahan's works on civil engineering, fortifications, &c.; H. W. Halleck's "Elements of Military Art and Science;" J. A. Dahlgren's "System of Boat Armament" and "Shells and Shell Guns ;" C. B. Stuart's "Naval Dry Docks of the United States;" J. G. Barnard's "Notes on Sea Coast Defence;" J. H. Ward's "Elementary Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Naval Gunnery;" De Hart's "Constitution and Practice of Courts Martial;" Col. H. L. Scott's "Dictionary of Military Science;" beside many by J. G. and B. J. Totten, E. L. Vielé, W. N. Jeffers, jr., H. D. Grafton, J. G. Benton, and others.

Comparatively few authors have written on the fine arts; the most prominent are W. Dunlap, author of a "History of the Arts of Design in America;" J. J. Jarves, author of “ Art Hints" and "Art Studies;" Washington Allston, Horatio Greenough, H. T. Tuckerman, B. J.