Lossing, W. H. Fry, Mrs. H. F. Lee, Thomas Hastings, and Lowell Mason, who have devoted themselves to sculpture, painting, and music. Rural architecture and landscape gardening have been illustrated by A. J. Downing (1815'52) in a number of gracefully written treatises and essays; and Samuel Sloan, C. Vaux, G. Wheeler, T. W. Walter, R. Upjohn, M. Field, and others have published general works on architecture. Of the numerous works produced on agricultural and horticultural subjects may be cited " European Agriculture and Rural Economy," by H. Colman; the "Farmer's Companion" and "Farmer's Instructor," by Jesse Buel; E. Ruffin's "Calcareous Manures;" R. L. Allen's "American Herd Book" and "American Farm Book;" R. Buist's "American Flower Garden Directory;" Downing's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America;" "The Fruit Garden," by P. Barry; the "Fruit Trees of America," by C. M. Hovey; the "Muck Manual," by S. L. Dana; H. S. Randall's "Sheep Husbandry;" L. T. Smith's "American Farmer's Hand-Book;" beside many valuable publications by J. S. Skinner, C. L. Flint, J. J. Mapes, D. J. Browne, T. Bridgman, W. Gaylord, L. Tucker, H. S. Olcott, and others. The useful manuals of Mrs. Hale, Miss C. E. Beecher, and Miss Leslie represent the contributions to domestic economy. J. R. Snowden and W. C. Prime are the principal writers on numismatics; E. Jarvis, L. Shattuck, J. Chickering, and J. D. B. De Bow represent the statisticians; James Renwick and Thomas Ewbank the writers on mechanics; H. W. Herbert has a unique reputation as a writer on field sports in America; and C. E. Lester has been a prolific miscellaneous author. Among the miscellaneous literature of the period may be classed the numerous volumes of "Collections" and "Memoirs" illustrating the national history, published by the historical societies of the several states, particularly by those of Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania. The "Archæologia Americana," or transactions of the American antiquarian society, form also a valuable contribution to the archæological literature of the country. Lastly, the foundations of American bibliography have been laid by the valuable works of Isaiah Thomas, O. A. Roorbach, G. P. Putnam, Nicholas Trübner, Herman Ludewig, H. Ternaux, H. Stevens, O. Rich, and E. B. O'Callaghan. The periodical literature of the country is treated under that head, and also under NEWSPAPERS.

UNIVERSALISTS, a religious denomination, holding the final destruction of evil, and the restoration of all souls through Jesus Christ. The following statement will probably represent the belief of the great majority of Universalists of the present day. I. They believe that God is infinite in all his perfections, creating man with the fixed purpose that the existence he was about to bestow should prove a final and everlasting blessing; that, foreseeing all the temptations, transgressions, and struggles

of man, he shaped his government, laws, and penalties with express reference to these emergencies, and adapted the spiritual forces to the final overcoming of all evil; that being almighty, he can convert and save a world of sinners as easily as he converted and saved Saul of Tarsus or Matthew the publican, and without any more violation of "free_agency" in the one case than in the other. They also believe in the perfection of the divine justice; and affirm, on this ground, that God would not impose on finite beings a law infinite in its demands and penalties; but that, being perfectly just, he will deal with every man according to his works, whether good or bad. II. They uniformly reject the doctrine of the Trinity, giving to Christ the second place, and making him subordinate to the Father. They believe that he is gifted with spirit and power above all other intelligences; that he is “God manifest in the flesh," i. e., that God has displayed in him the brightness of his glory and the express image of his person, as in no other being tabernacled in flesh; that he was sent of God to be the Saviour of the world, and that he will actually save it, because God would not offer, nor would Christ accept, a mission which both knew would end in failure; therefore, they say, the work of redemption will be thorough and universal. III. They believe that man was and is created upright, but liable to sin; that transgression comes not out of any original corruption of heart, transmitted from Adam, but out of ignorance and unbelief; that all men are formed, as Adam was, in the moral image of God; and that this image, though it may be disfigured by sin, can never be wholly lost. Faith and regeneration remove the stains and defilements of sin, and renew or reform the soul in the divine likeness. IV. They believe the new birth to be that thorough change of heart which takes place when a man, wrought upon by divine grace, forsakes his sins, or turns from his former life of worldliness and indifference toward God and the Saviour, and is drawn into fellowship with the Holy Spirit, and, thus quickened into new spiritual vitality, consecrates himself to a life of active goodness and piety. This new birth is not supernatural, but the result of appointed means suitably improved. The Holy Spirit blesses the use of these means, and moves upon the heart of the sinner, encouraging, comforting, assisting, sanetifying. They do not believe in instantaneous regeneration, though they allow that there may be a turning point in the life of every man, when his attention is specially directed to religion. Conversion is only the commencement of religious effort. V. They teach that salvation is not shelter nor safety, nor escape from present or future punishment. It is inward and spiritual, and not from any outward evil, but deliverance from error, unbelief, sin, the tyranny of the flesh and its hurtful lusts, into the liberty and blessedness of a holy life, and supreme love to God and man. This is an important doctrinal and prac

tical point with Universalists, and is constantly enforced in their preaching and writings. They urge on all to seek salvation, not from the torments of a future hell, but from the present captivity of sin. In reply to the objection that millions die in sin, in pagan ignorance and unbelief, they answer that no one is wholly saved in this life, but that all men are saved, in a greater or less degree, after death; and assert that the power of Christ over the soul does not cease with the death of the body, but that he continues the work of enlightenment and redemption till he surrenders the kingdom to the Father, which does not take place till after the resurrection is complete. VI. The resurrection is not merely a physical but a moral and spiritual change. It is not only clothing the soul with an incorruptible body, but it is an anastasis, a raising up, an exaltation of the whole being into the power and glory of the heavenly; for, "as we have borne the image of the earthy, we shall also bear the image of the heavenly." It is a change, they say, by which we become as the angels, and "are children of God, being (or, because we are) children of the resurrection." It must, therefore, be something more than clothing the soul in a spiritual body. It is, beside this, growth in spiritual strength and power, in knowledge, in holiness, in all the elements and forces of the divine life, until we reach a point of perfectness and blessedness described by the term heaven. This resurrection or lifting up of the soul into the glorified life of the angels, is the work of the Lord Jesus Christ. The end of his mediatorial reign, the completion of his saving work, and the final surrender of his kingdom back to God, does not take place till after this anastasis, or till this uplifting of all the dead and living into "the image of the heavenly" is completed. VII. On the subject of rewards and punishments, the Universalist belief is substantially, that holiness, piety, love of God and man, are their own reward, make their own heaven here and hereafter; and that in the nature of things no other reward is possible. If men love God with all their hearts, and trust in him, they find, and are satisfied with, the present heaven which love and faith bring with them. They hold the same doctrine respecting punishment: that it is consequential, not arbitrary-the natural fruit of sin; that it is for restraint, correction, and discipline; and that God loves as truly when he punishes as when he blesses, never inflicting pain in anger, but only because he sees that it is needed, as medicine is, to prevent a greater evil. They affirm that the law is made for the good of man, and of course that the penalty cannot be such as to defeat the object of the law. Transgression brings misery or punishment, which is designed to correct and restore to obedience, because obedience is happiness. They maintain that pain ordained for its own sake, and perpetuated to all eternity, is proof of infinite malignity; but God, they say, is infinitely beneficent, and

therefore all suffering must have a beneficent element in it, all punishment must be temporary and end in good.-The Universalists believe that traces of their main doctrine may be found in the earliest Christian writings. Some of the Gnostic sects held to the final purification of those who died in sin, as the Basilidians, Valentinians, &c. The famous "Sibylline Oracles" (A. D. 150) teach explicitly the doctrine of the final restoration of the lost. As this work was written expressly to convert the pagans to Christianity, Universalists affirm that this is conclusive as to what was regarded as Christianity 50 years after the death of the apostle John. They profess to find the same belief taught in the writings of Clement of Alexandria (200); Origen (203-254); Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra in Galatia (330); Titus, bishop of Bostra (364); Gregory, bishop of Nyssa in Cappadocia (372); Didymus the Blind (370), president of the catechetical school of Alexandria; Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus (378); Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia (394); and Fabius Marius Victorinus (362-392). Notwithstanding that Universalism, as such, was specially and formally condemned by the second general council of Constantinople in 553, the doctrine survived, and occasionally appeared in strength; as among the Albigenses and Waldenses in the 12th century, the Lollards of Germany in the 14th, the "Men of Understanding" in the 15th, and some of the Anabaptist sects in the 16th. When the reformation began in England, this doctrine rose with it, and was defended with such zeal and success that, in preparing the "Articles of Faith" for the national church, it was thought necessary to introduce a special condemnation in an article afterward omitted. Some of the most eminent members of this church have seemed to sanction the doctrine: Archbishop Tillotson, Dr. Burnet in his De Statu Mortuorum, Bishop Newton, Dr. Henry More, William Whiston, David Hartley in his "Observations on Man," and others. Among the dissenters who believed and defended it were Soame Jenyns, Jeremy White, chaplain to Oliver Cromwell and author of "The Restoration of All Things," and William Law, author of the "Serious Call" and "Christian Perfection." The English Unitarians generally believe the doctrine. Universalism prevails extensively in Germany. It is freely accepted also in the French Protestant church. It began to attract attention in America about the middle of the 18th century, but it was not till the arrival of the Rev. John Murray in 1770 that it made much progress. Since that period it has spread with great rapidity. The published "Register" of the denomination for 1862 gives a United States convention, composed of 23 state conventions, in their turn composed of 87 local associations, representing 1,279 societies owning 998 churches, with a ministry of 724 preachers. They have under their patronage 11 institutions of learning, including 3 colleges and 8 academies, and support 17 periodicals. There are also various

state missionary, tract, and Sunday school societies, actively engaged in promoting the knowledge and practice of the faith. A general publishing house is in course of establishment, after the model of the Methodists. Relief funds also, for the benefit of aged and destitute ministers, are in progress, one of which, in the state of New York, already has a permanent fund of $15,000. St. Lawrence university, N. Y., with the theological school, has property amounting to $100,000, and a valuable library of 5,000 volumes, mostly purchased in Germany. Tufts college, Mass., opened in 1854, has funds and real estate of not less value than $300,000, and a library of 10,000 volumes. The ecclesiastical government of the denomination is representative and congregational, the associational organizations being chiefly for mutual counsel and assistance. See "Ancient History of Universalism," by the Rev. Hosea Ballou (12mo., Boston), and the "Modern History," by the Rev. Thomas Whittemore (12mo., Boston, 1830; new ed., vol. i., 1860).

UNIVERSITY (Lat. universitas), a corporation consisting of the teachers or teachers and students of one or more departments of knowledge, and other persons who have become associated with them as patrons or otherwise, which corporation has been empowered by the constituted authorities to confer degrees in one or more faculties. The term university had no reference originally to education. It is used by Cicero and other Latin writers to express the idea of completeness. In the code of Justinian it is used to designate a corporation or corporate body, as we sometimes use the word college at the present day. Thus there were in Rome in the 7th and 8th centuries "universities" of tailors, bakers, &c. Its first application to academical institutions was made in the 13th century, and grew out of this very idea of a corporation with which it had become identified. There were schools and seminaries of learning in great numbers before and after the Christian era, some of them, such as the schools of Athens, Alexandria, Edessa, and Tarsus, doubtless answering in many respects to the modern university; but none of them assumed that name, and none were in existence during the dark ages to which it could have been applied prior to the 12th century. There were indeed schools of considerable note, in most instances connected with monasteries or cathedrals, at Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Bologna, and other cities of Europe, from the 7th or 8th century, at times flourishing, and at other times abandoned. There was also the great educational movement among the Saracens, who for several centuries had their schools deserving the name of universities, in Arabia, Syria, Persia, Egypt, Morocco, and Spain. The university of Paris, the first distinctive university, grew out of the popularity of the lectures and teachings of William of Champeaux, Abelard, and Peter Lombard, the great masters of the scholastic philosophy,

which attracted thousands of students from all parts of Europe. The numerous schools of Paris and its vicinity, some of them connected with monasteries and others independent, taught the trivium, grammar, logic or dialectics, and rhetoric, and the quadrivium, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Of these 7 studies, but few went beyond the tricium; and those who attained the whole were regarded as prodigies of learning. (See EDUCATION.) The great influx of students rendered an organization for their government and discipline necessary, and toward the end of the 12th century they seem to have been incorporated as a body of teachers. It is probable that at first there were several of these organizations, for the faculty of arts had assumed a regular form of self-government before 1169, and in that year the rights of the chancellor of Notre Dame were exercised in reference to the faculty of theology. There are in existence two decretals of Pope Alexander III., of about 1180 and 1182, relative to the charging of fees by the chancellor for licenses to teach. The first mention of the rector or head of the university is in an ordinance of Philip Augustus in 1200, though he does not give the name of university to the organization; that was first done in 1215 by Pope Innocent III., who by his decretal of that date regulated its organization and institutions. As thus regulated, all the students and professors were divided into 4 nations, viz.: the French nation, including the French, Italians, Spaniards, Greeks, &c.; the nation of Picardy, which included the N. E. of France and the Netherlands; the nation of Normandy; and the English nation, which included not only the inhabitants of the British isles and Brittany, but Germans, Poles, &c. Each nation elected a procurator (the Germans subsequently elected two, and were responsible only to them) from their own number, whose duty it was to defend the rights and privileges of the nation, convene and preside in its meetings, admit new members, and see that all the statutes were observed. Each nation had its own buildings and church and its great and small seal, was divided into provinces, and each province into dioceses, and was independent in regard to its own affairs. The 4 nations, at first voting collectively, elected a rector; but the predominance of the French nation gave so much dissatisfaction, that eventually he was elected by the 4 procurators. The rector and procurators constituted the council of the university, in which its ordinary powers of government and legislation were vested. There was however a higher officer than these, who was the fountain and source of all honor, and by whose authority alone degrees could be conferred or licenses to teach granted. This was the chancellor, who, if the university was in an episcopal city, was usually the bishop of the diocese. In Paris, the university being partly in the diocese of Paris, and partly in the abbey lands of St.

Geneviève, there were two chancellors; the abbot of St. Geneviève was chancellor of the faculty of arts, while the bishop of Paris was chancellor of the other 3 faculties and of the university at large. To the 4 nations already mentioned were added in 1259 a faculty of theology, under the patronage and influence of the Dominican and Franciscan friars, and soon afterward separate faculties of medicine and canon law; and from 1281 the university consisted of 7 bodies instead of 4, viz., 4 nations and 3 faculties, represented in the government by 4 procurators and 3 deans. To the faculties only doctors, i. e., teachers, could belong; the bachelors and scholars, whether of arts, theology, law, or medicine, were still included in the 4 nations. The great influx of students led to the establishment of colleges, at first merely hostels, in which free board and lodging were furnished to a certain number of indigent students, but subsequently places of instruction also. (See COLLEGE.) They have been mostly confined to France and Great Britain. The academical degrees conferred by the universities seem rather to have originated from the necessities of the case than to have been the result of any deliberate purpose of the officers of any particular university. The term bachelor (bachelier) in French originally signified a young man, and was perhaps derived from bacilla, a little staff or stick, because the young soldiers on first entering the army exercised with small, sticks instead of weapons. It was applied to those who had just passed through the curriculum of study, whether in the arts, theology, medicine, or law, because they were now to be disciplined for the actual conflict of life by practice in teaching. The terms master and doctor were originally synonymous, and both implied persons actually engaged in teaching; after a time, master was confined to those who taught the arts, and doctor to those who gave instruction in theology, medicine, or law. The title professor was given to one who professed to teach a particular subject. There was also a distinction of regents and non-regents (Lat. rego, to rule or instruct). The object of acquiring an education in the beginning was to be able to impart instruction, and every bachelor, master, or doctor was obliged to devote a certain period, called a necessary regency, to teaching, after which he might if he chose become a non-regent. The student in the university, at the end of 2 years, became a determiner, that is, he put himself upon repeated trials to determine whether he could become a bachelor; if he passed the examinations after 34 years' study, he was conducted by the rector to the chancellor, who crowned and blessed him; he then assumed the round hat, and became a bachelor. After 3 years' more study and repeated examinations, he was if found worthy presented to the chancellor as qualified to receive a license to teach the 7 liberal arts; he was then invested with the master's bonnet, and publicly and solemnly

declared a master of arts, and was at liberty to commence his career of teaching. In order however to become a full master, he must offer himself as a candidate to the company of masters of the university, to be admitted as a socius or fellow with them. To attain to the doctor's degree in divinity, the master must have studied 9 years, 2 of which must have been passed in the study of the Bible and 2 in Peter Lombard's "Book of Sentences." For the doctorate in law or medicine a shorter time was sufficient. The degree of doctor was conferred jointly by the chancellor and faculty, who exacted a solemn oath of the candidate to maintain their teachings and privileges.-The university of Paris was the model of most of those in France, and of the English universities. The university of Bologna can boast as early and perhaps even an earlier origin, some writers endeavoring to maintain a connection between it and a school established there in 433 by Theodosius II. and revived by Charlemagne. It would appear that the arts were taught there in the 11th century, and perhaps there may have been teachers of law also; but the university first attained prominence and its designation early in the 12th century, from the celebrity of Irnerius, the great teacher of Roman law of that century. It was the most celebrated law school of Europe for several centuries; and though it possessed other faculties, the greater reputation of its legal faculty caused them to be regarded as subordinate. In 1220 its schools were attended by 10,000 students, and in the 14th century the number had increased to 13,000. In this university the students and teachers were divided into citramontanes, or natives of Italy, and ultramontanes, or foreigners; and these were subdivided into nations, of which there were 17 in the former and 18 in the latter. Each nation had its presiding officer, called a "counsellor," except the German nation, which had instead 2 procurators. The counsellors formed the governing power of the university, and elected the rector and syndic, the former however receiving also the vote of his predecessor and of electors from the university at large. The leading distinction between the university of Paris and that of Bologna was that in the former the masters or teachers (doctores) constituted the privileged corporation, to the exclusion of the scholars; while in the latter students formed the university, and elected the academical officers whom the masters and teachers were bound to obey. The rector possessed more power than at Paris, and the chancellors, of whom there were two, only conferred the degrees and honors. The rector possessed supreme civil jurisdiction in all cases relating to the students, and usually might exercise criminal jurisdiction also, if he chose to do so. In 1362 there were in Bologna 4 universities: 2 of law, which however were often reckoned as one; one of medicine, the arts, and scholars of theology; and one of doctors

of theology. In Bologna originated the practice of conferring a double doctorate, of both laws, the civil and canon law, perpetuated in our degree of LL.D., and in the J.U.D. (juris utriusque doctor) of the German universities. The practice of paying fixed salaries to professors also originated in Bologna, where they were paid as early as 1279.-Before the year 1500 there were in Europe 64 universities, viz. 15 in France, of which, after that of Paris, those of Montpellier, Toulouse, and Orleans were the most celebrated, the first as a school of medicine, and the last two of law; 19 in Italy, one of them, at Salerno, being probably the earliest in Europe, dating from the 10th century, though for a long time having only a medical faculty, and those of Padua, Ferrara, and Pisa also having a high reputation; 15 in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, including those of Vienna, Prague, Heidelberg, Cologne, Erfurt, Leipsic, Louvain, Basel, Ingolstadt, and Tübingen; 9 in Spain and Portugal, including Salamanca, Coimbra, Valladolid, Saragossa, and Alcala; 2 in England, Oxford and Cambridge; one in Poland, at Cracow; one in Hungary, at Buda; one in Denmark, at Copenhagen; and one in Sweden, at Upsal.-The English universities, being founded on the model of that of Paris, present in their early history not many items of general interest. Colleges and halls were early established in both, though halls were more frequent in the former; the colleges were at first mere endowments for the support of a certain number of masters and indigent scholars; the halls were at Oxford boarding houses in which the students lived, choosing a graduate of respectable character as their principal. These hostelries were licensed by the university. About the middle of the 16th century the universities experienced their greatest depression; the number of students actually in attendance was very small, and the halls were unoccupied. From the ruin which then befell them the halls have never recovered; and it having been the policy of the heads of the university to discountenance them, there are now but 6 halls at Oxford, while there are 19 colleges, and only one hall or hostel at Cambridge, with 17 colleges. In Oxford, from the commencement of the 15th century, it was required that the students must be members of some college or hall under a responsible head. In Cambridge there has been greater liberty in this respect, and even at the present time nearly 100 of the students are not resident in the colleges. The study of Greek was not pursued at Oxford until the time of Cardinal Wolsey, who founded 7 lectureships, one of them of the Greek language. The business of teaching, originally the function of the universities, was assumed by the colleges as early as the 16th century. The organization of the universities, and their connection with the colleges, are very similar, though different names are given to many of the officers in the two institutions. (See CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF, and

OXFORD, UNIVERSITY OF.) The university of Durham, organized in 1833, is in its main features a copy of Oxford and Cambridge in little. It has one college and two halls, and is under the general patronage of the bishop of Durham. Of the university of London, as embracing entirely new principles, we shall speak further on. In 1856 an act of parliament was passed, which looked to a thorough reorganization of the two ancient universities, the abolition of sinecures, the greater efficiency of the teaching faculties, and the throwing open of fellowships and scholarships to general competition. The changes brought about by this law are still in progress. The Scottish universities, though not so largely endowed and comprising fewer colleges, were organized much on the Paris model, except that the students were not required to reside in the college buildings. St. Andrew's is the oldest, having been founded in 1411, and had formerly 3 colleges, St. Salvator, St. Leonard's, and St. Mary's. The first two were consolidated in 1747, and the act of parliament in relation to Scottish universities in 1858 requires that the two remaining shall be consolidated. Glasgow university was founded in 1450; that of Aberdeen in 1494, with two colleges, King's and Marischal, now consolidated; and that of Edinburgh in 1582, by James VI. of Scotland. The organization of the 4 Scottish universities is now uniform and assimilated to the new régime of the English. They are governed by a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and rector, with the 3 courts, the senatus academicus, university court, and general council; the first consists of the principal and faculties; the second of the rector, the principal, the lord provost of Edinburgh, and 5 assessors nominated respectively by the chancellor, the rector, the senatus academicus, the general council, and the authorities of the city; and the general council of the masters, fellows, and scholars. In Ireland there are two universities: the university of Dublin, or Trinity college, properly a college with university privileges; and the Queen's university, in which the colleges of Belfast, Cork, and Galway are placed under one gov erning board.-The French revolution broke up all the old universities of France, but left the colleges (lycées) in existence, and the endowments for a portion of the higher faculties. In 1808 Napoleon attempted to consolidate the entire educational system of France under one organization, which he called the university of France. The whole country was divided into 17 districts, each under its own academy, and all subordinate to the central university. Each academy had its faculties and institutions of higher instruction, embracing letters, sciences, medicine, law, and theology; its organizations of secondary instruction, consisting of imperial lyceums, communal colleges, and gymnasia; and its schools of primary instruction, answering to our common schools. This university remained till 1848, when it was merged in the "Superior (now Imperial) Council of Public In