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struction." This council consists of 32 members appointed annually, and is under the control of the minister of public instruction.-The German universities were for the most part founded on the model of that of Bologna. They concern themselves only with superior instruction, the rudiments of classical learning, or what we term the collegiate course, being pursued in the gymnasia. They all have the 4 faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, the last comprehending the subjects usually comprised under literature and science; and some of them add a 5th faculty, that of administrative and political sciences. Each university consists of two corporate bodies, the professors,

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30 or 40 in number, who are paid in part by the state and partly by the students, whose attendance is voluntary, and the corporation of students. The administrative body of each university consists of a rector and senate elected by the professors. The students only attend the lectures and examinations, and do not board or lodge in college buildings.-The following table exhibits the condition in several important particulars of the European universities in 1858-'9. France has now no universities, and is consequently omitted, and the returns from Russia, Spain, and Tuscany are so imperfect that we can give little more than their names, date of organization, and number of students.

EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES.

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Matriculation fee, $3; annual fee for all the classes in each faculty, 40 to $50. Theology is taught in seminaries not connected with the uni versities.

Universities supported by the state. There is a small matriculation fee and a graduation fee. The students also pay from $6.25 to $12.50 per session for their lectures.

Students pay $3.50 matriculation, and from $5 to $10 for lectures.

Matriculation at Copenhagen, $5.50; at Kiel, $4.57; for private lectures, from $2.25 to $5.50 per course. Public lectures free; private leetures, $1.50 to $3.00 per term; ma triculation, $5.60 to $6.75. The faculties are not the same as in other universities; they are judicial, historico-philological, math ematical, and medical. In St. Pe tersburg there is also a faculty of oriental languages. The matricu lation fee is $5.20, and there is a very small fee for private lectures. Students pay no fees.

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-Within a few years past efforts have been made to attach a new signification to the term university, or rather to apply it to organizations of a different character from those to which it had before been attached. The first experiment of this kind was the establishment of the university of London in 1836. It has no colleges like Oxford and Cambridge, or rather it has affiliated to it nearly all the colleges of the British empire. It has a senatus academicus, composed of eminent scholars of all denominations, and boards of examiners before whom the candidate for a degree is rigidly examined; if he passes these, it is of no consequence where he has acquired his knowledge. There are no degrees conferred in course, or pro causa honoris. Beside a matriculation examination, other examinations sufficiently strict and thorough to test the candidate's knowledge precede each degree, two being required before conferring the bachelor's degree in arts, science, law, or medicine, and those who cannot pass them are rejected without mercy. Since its organization every dissenting college, and several church colleges in Great Britain and its colonies, have sent their students to its examining boards to obtain their degrees, and a considerable number of the students of Oxford and Cambridge have preferred to pass its examinations. It has accomplished much good in rendering the educational movement freer from form and routine, and yet more thorough. There had existed for many years in England collegiate institutions founded and endowed by

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dissenters for educational purposes, but which could not enjoy the privileges of the universities, and could not confer degrees upon their graduates, in consequence of their scruples in regard to subscription to the "thirty-nine articles." Lord Brougham and Thomas Campbell in 1825 attempted to remedy this by the organization of the London university (now University college), a collegiate institution which required no religious tests; but this produced some dissatisfaction, and King's college was founded by churchmen who desired to have theology included in the curriculum. Both these institutions are now dependent for their de grees on the university of London. In the United States there are, properly speaking, no universities. Several American colleges have, indeed, connected with them more or less closely schools of theology, law, medicine, and physical science, or at least some of these faculties; but these are as often called colleges as universities, while frequently institutions of recent origin, and having a mere faculty of the arts and a course of study not above that of a well regulated high school, assume the name of university. We have no university in the continental sense of an institution in advance of the gymnasium or college, and receiving only those who have completed their course there; nor in the English sense of a corporation enclosing within it and governed and controlled by other corporations, with its fellowships, its sinecure professorships, and its ancient and peculiar traditions; nor yet after

the model of the university of London. Still, there are two classes of organizations in the United States claiming the name of university, which merit notice. The first are the state universities. In the newer states, grants of land were made by the general government for university purposes; and in Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Alabama, and Mississippi, and perhaps in some of the other states, a sufficient portion of these lands has been sold to furnish a fund for the partial endowment of such universities. Though differing in minor particulars from each other, they agree in being free from denominational control, and in making provision for eventual instruction in law, medicine, physical science, and pedagogy, or the art of teaching; and they usually form the apex of a system of which common schools are the base, and which proceeds upward through the grammar school, high school or academy, and college, to the university. Much of this is yet in theory only. The other organization has but a single example as yet; it is the university of the state of New York, existing only in a board of regents, elected by the legislature on the nomination of the governor. This board has a general oversight of nearly all the colleges and academies of the state, requiring of them full and accurate reports of their professors or teachers and students, the average attendance, financial condition, studies pursued, and text books used; and certain observations on the barometer and thermometer form a part of them. They apportion to these institutions their respective shares of the literature fund, and make a full report of their doings to the legislature. They have also the power of conferring honorary degrees, though they have used it sparingly. -The British colonies have several so called universities, but they have no better claim to the title than those of the United States; in all of them, the faculty of arts is the prominent faculty, and the others, if any exist, are only of secondary importance. The Spanish-American states, both in North and South America, have universities modelled after those of Salamanca and Seville; but the teaching in most of them is not of a high order. In Brazil, the present emperor has exerted himself to improve and elevate the character of university education, calling eminent scholars from abroad to occupy the principal chairs, and introducing the latest discoveries in physical science. In Asia, the nearest approach to the university is found in China. (See CHINA, and EDUCATION.) In Persia and Hindostan there are relics of the former intellectual culture of those countries, in the now neglected universities or schools of high art. See Du Boulay, Historia Universitatis Parisiensis; Anthony à Wood, "History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford;" T. Fuller, "History of the University of Cambridge," &c.; H. Malden, “Origin of Universities and Academic Degrees" (12mo., London, 1835); T. Fritz, Esquisse d'un système complet d'instruction, &c. (3 vols. 8vo., Strasbourg,

1840-'43); De Viriville, Histoire des universites en France (Paris, 1847); Sir W. Hamilton, "Discussions in Philosophy" (8vo., New York, 1853); Von Raumer, "History of German Universities," translated into English by Henry Barnard (Hartford, 1859); and E. T. Rogers, "Education in Oxford" (London, 1861).

UNTERWALDEN, a canton situated near the centre of Switzerland, bounded N. by the lake of Lucerne, E. by the canton of Uri, S. by Bern, and W. and N. W. by Lucerne; area, 298 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 24,810. It is divided into Upper and Lower Unterwalden (Unterwalden Obwalden and Unterwalden Nidwalden), the capital of the former being Sarnen, and that of the latter Stanz. A great deal of the surface is occupied by mountains, which traverse the country in different directions, and attain heights ranging between 3,000 and 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The remainder consists of 4 principal valleys, which have a general slope toward the lake on the N. frontier, into which the chief rivers, the Melch and the Aa, discharge nearly all the drainage of the canton. There are several small lakes, and about of the area of Lake Lucerne belongs to Unterwalden. The geological formation is chalk, and the canton is remarkable for a great number of caverns. Little of the land is level enough for agricultural purposes, but the pastures are excellent, and the cattle fed upon them constitute the wealth of the country. There are extensive tracts of forests. Apples, pears, and chestnuts are raised in great quantities in the valleys, but the vine does not succeed well even in the most sheltered spots.-The inhabitants speak German, are nearly all Roman Catholics, and very few foreigners are found among them. They are exceedingly simple in their habits. Every male inhabitant over 20 years of age is entitled to a vote in appointing the principal local officers.

UPAS TREE, an urtical exogen of the natural order of artocarpacea, which comprises both trees and shrubs abounding in milky juices, which in some species is nutritious and wholesome, but in a few is of extreme virulence. The artocarpads are scarcely different from the urticals except in their lactiferous properties. In the genus antiaris, to which belongs the upas tree, the flowers are monacious, both barren and fertile being placed in pairs side by side in the axils of the leaves, the former consisting of a 3 or 4-divided calyx, and several of them collected in a hairy involucre with fleshy involute divisions, the latter singly situated, and having a simple germen enclosed in a calyx of several divisions and surmounted by a long 2-parted style. The bohun upas (signifying poison tree) of the Malays, the ipo of Celebes and the Philippines, and antiar of the Javanese, is the antiaris toxicaria of Leschenault. It is a lofty tree, with a beautiful slender stem, which overtops the neighboring plants. It is perfectly cylindrical, rising 60 to 80 feet with

out a branch, bears an elegant hemispherical crown, and is usually entwined with many climbers around its trunk. Its poisonous qualities are attributed to a peculiar alkaloid resident in the juice, which when freshly drawn from the tree is a bitter gum resin, of a light hue if from the young branches, and dark yellow from the older stem, but both turn black on drying. Its venomous properties can be preserved for an indefinite time if it is excluded from the air; and they so pervade the entire tree that linen spun from its tough fibres is acrid enough to produce painful itching if insufficiently prepared.-Extraordinary fables, strengthened by the narrative of Foersch, a surgeon in the Dutch East India company's service in 1774, attributed to this tree a most contagious effluvium, making the atmosphere around fatal to animal and vegetable life, and rendering the valley in which it grew a scene of desolation. When visited by Messrs. Deschamps and Leschenault, the tree was found to flourish only where vegetation was most luxuriant, the poisoned and desolate valley being situated in another part of the island, and consisting of a volcanic basin filled at bottom with carbonic acid gas. These botanists experienced no unpleasant sensations from being in its vicinity for the purpose of studying its botanical characters or investigating its structure.-There are several species of antiaris, of which the long-leaved (A. macrophylla) is found on the N. coast of New Holland, and others, whose milky juices are inert, in the tropics.

UPHAM, CHARLES WENTWORTH, an American clergyman and author, born in St. John, New Brunswick, May 4, 1802. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1821, and in 1824 completed a course of theological study at the Cambridge divinity school. The same year he was settled as colleague pastor with the Rev. John Prince of the first church in Salem. In Dec. 1844, he resigned and quitted the ministry. He next edited the "Christian Register" for a year, spent another year in visiting the counties and towns of the state as lecturer for the Massachusetts board of education, and was mayor of the city of Salem for a year. He was a member of the 33d congress (1854-'5) from the 6th district of Massachusetts, of the Massachusetts house of representatives in 1849, 1859, and 1860, and of the state senate in 1850, 1851, and 1858, and presided over that body in the last mentioned year. Mr. Upham has been a frequent contributor to the "North American Review," "Christian Examiner," "Hunt's Merchants' Magazine," Herring and Longacre's "National Portrait Gallery," and other periodicals and reviews, and, beside several occasional orations, pamphlets, &c., has published the following books: "Letters on the Logos" (Boston, 1828); "Lectures on Witchcraft, comprising a History of the Salem Delusion, 1692" (Boston, 1831); "Life of Sir Henry Vane" (in Sparks's "American Biography," Boston, 1835); "Prophecy as an Evidence of Christianity" (Boston, 1835);

and "Life, Explorations, and Public Services of John Charles Fremont" (Boston, 1856).

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UPHAM, THOMAS COGSWELL, D.D., American author, born in Deerfield, N. H., Jan. 30, 1799. He was graduated at Dartmouth college in 1818, immediately entered the theological seminary at Andover, and in 1821 became Prof. Stuart's assistant as teacher of the Hebrew language. While thus engaged he prepared a translation of Jahn's "Biblical Archæology," which has passed through numerous editions both in this country and in England. In July, 1823, he was settled as colleague pastor of the Congregational church in Rochester, N. H.; and since 1825 he has been professor of mental and moral philosophy in Bowdoin college. In 1852 he visited Europe, the Holy Land, and Egypt. Among his works are: "Ratio Disciplinæ, or the Constitution of Congregational Churches" (Portland, 1829); "Elements of Mental Philosophy" (2 vols. 12mo., Portland, 1839), much on the same principles with Dugald Stewart and Reid; and “Philosophical and Practical Treatise on the Will" (12mo., New York, 1850). He has also written a series of treatises and memoirs on religious experience, differing in some respects from any other works of modern times on these subjects, and approximating in sentiment to the writings of Tauler, Gerson, and other mystics of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. Their object is "to show that man, on acknowledged and obvious principles of philosophy and religion, can gradually but surely rise above the propensities and sins of a perverted selfhood, and not only be brought into harmony with himself in his own interior and subjective nature, but into relations of perfect peace and union with God himself and with all that is right and good in the universe." The titles of these treatises are: "Principles of the Interior or Hidden Life" (12mo., New York, 1848); "Life of Faith" (1848); "Treatise on Divine Union" (Boston, 1851); "Religious Maxims" (Philadelphia, 1854); “Life of Madame Catharine Adorna" (Boston, 1856); and "Life and Religious Opinions of Madame Guyon, together with some account of the Personal History and Religious Experience of Archbishop Fénélon" (2 vols. 12mo., New York, 1856). Beside these, he has written "Manual of Peace" (8vo., New York, 1836); "Outlines of Imperfect and Disordered Mental Action" (18mo., New York, 1840); "American Cottage Life, a Series of Poems" (16mo., Portland, 1852); "Letters, Esthetic, Social, and Moral, written from Europe, Egypt, and Palestine" (8vo., Philadelphia, 1857); and an essay, in a volume with essays by other authors on the same subject, on a congress of nations (8vo., Boston, 1840).

UPOLU. See NAVIGATORS' ISLANDS.

UPSAL, or UPSALA, a læn or district of Sweden, province of Svealand, bounded N. by the gulf of Bothnia, E. by Stockholm, S. by Lake Mælar, separating it from Södermanland, and

W. by Westeras and Gefleborg; area, 2,095 sq. m.; pop. in 1858, 91,377. The sea coast extends about 20 m., and has several small indentations and the large bay of Loftsa. The principal river is the Dal, on the confines of Gefleborg, and there are numerous lakes. The surface consists of undulating plains; the soil is fertile in the S., and the scenery very beautiful, but in the N. a great deal of it is barren, and the country has a bleak appearance. Iron ore is abundant, and is extensively worked, the metal produced, especially that of Danemora, being of very superior quality. Sufficient grain is raised for the consumption of the population, and considerable quantities of cattle are exported.-UPSAL, the capital, is situated on the Fyrisa or Sala, near its junction with one of the N. creeks of Lake Mælar, 39 m. N. N. W. from Stockholm; pop. 5,000. It stands in an extensive undulating plain about 300 feet above the level of the sea, and the river is crossed by two stone bridges. There is a large square in the centre of the town, and the streets are broad and well laid out. The cathedral, built between 1258 and 1435, is one of the finest Gothic buildings of N. Europe. It is of brick, and contains many interesting monuments, among others those of Gustavus I. and Linnæus. In former times the kings of Sweden were crowned here. The university of Upsal, founded in 1476, has faculties of law, philosophy, theology, and medicine, and is governed by a chancellor, assisted by 31 professors, and attended by nearly 1,500 students. It has a library containing about 100,000 volumes and some rare MSS., a very large collection of interesting objects of natural history, a collection of coins, a chemical laboratory, and an observatory. The society of sciences was established in 1719, and has published several valuable volumes of "Transactions." The palace of Gustavus is in a ruinous condition, but a part of it is occupied by the governor; and the house in which Linnæus lived is still standing. Upsal is the see of an archbishop, the residence of a governor, and the seat of several courts. The "Mora stones," at which the Swedes elected their kings between 1140 and 1520, lie about 6 m. S. E. from Upsal.

UPSHUR, a Ñ. E. co. of Texas, bounded N. by Big Cypress bayou and S. by Sabine river; area, 950 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 10,645, of whom 3,794 were slaves. The surface is nearly level and well timbered, and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 90,495 bushels of Indian corn, 26,736 lbs. of butter, and 673 bales of cotton. There were 131 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Gilmer.

UPSHUR, ABEL PARKER, an American jurist and statesman, born in Northampton co., Va., accidentally killed at Washington, D. C., Feb. 28, 1844. He was graduated at Nassau Hall, Princeton, N. J., in 1807, studied law in the office of William Wirt at Richmond, Va., was admitted to the bar in 1810, and practised his profession in Richmond till 1824, when

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he removed to his patrimonial residence in Northampton co. In 1826 he was appointed a judge in the general court of Virginia, in 1829 was a member of the convention to revise the constitution of the state, and after the reorganization of the judicial system under the new constitution was again elected a judge in the general court, and continued to fill that position till he was called in 1841 by President Tyler to the post of secretary of the navy. On the resignation of Mr. Webster in 1843 he was transferred to the office of secretary of state, which he filled till his death, caused by the explosion of a monster cannon on board the U. S. steamer Princeton, which he was visiting in company with the president and the other members of the cabinet. Judge Upshur published a number of essays, reviews, addresses, &c., and two more considerable works, viz.: a review of Story on the constitution, and “An Inquiry into the Nature and Character of our Federal Government."

UPSON, a W. co. of Georgia, bounded S. W. by Flint river and intersected by Potato creek; area, 384 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 9,910, of whom 4,888 were slaves. The surface is hilly and the soil generally fertile. The productions in 1850 were 343,017 bushels of Indian corn, 68,709 of sweet potatoes, and 7,443 bales of cotton. There were 3 cotton factories, 4 grist mills, 4 saw mills, 21 churches, and 650 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Thomaston.

URAL, formerly YAIK, a river of Russia, forming the boundary between Europe and Asia. It takes its rise in the district of Troitzk, in the Asiatic portion of the government of Orenburg, in the S. part of the Ural mountains. Its source is about 1,720 feet above the sea, and it flows at first S. past Verkho Uralsk, Magnitnaya, and Kizilsk, bends W. near Orsk, passes Orenburg, and turning S. E. flows past Uralsk, thence S., washing the base of the forts Tchegannoy, Kalmykova, and Saraitchik, and discharges its waters into the Caspian sea by several mouths, near Guriev, about lat. 47° N. Its length is variously estimated at from 1,500 to 1,800 m., and it drains a territory of 83,200 sq. m. Its principal affluents are, on the right, the Kizil, Tanalik, Sakmara, and Bolshoy Tchegan; and on the left, the Suyunduk, Or, Ilek, Ulva, and Grashi. In its upper portion the river is obstructed by rapids, and flows through a mountainous country; lower down, it passes through wide steppes or saline plains, one of which lying between this river and the Volga is called the Uralian steppe. Toward winter the river near its mouth abounds with fish. The navigation of the Ural is of very little importance. The inhabitants upon its banks are mostly Cossacks. A line of forts has been erected along its shores as a defence against the Bashkirs and Kirgheez.

URAL MOUNTAINS, the chain of mountains forming the N. E. boundary of Europe, and separating European Russia from Siberia. Of very moderate height and breadth, the chain

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