Capts. Stewart and William Bainbridge united in most earnest efforts to induce a change of policy in this respect, and succeeded. In conformity with their suggestions, the ships of war were ordered to sea, and in Dec. 1812, Capt. Stewart was appointed to the frigate Constellation, then lying at Norfolk. In the summer of 1813 he was transferred to the Constitution, there seeming to be no possibility of his eluding with the Constellation a close blockade of Norfolk, which was maintained by a strong British squadron. In December he sailed from Boston upon a cruise, which extended to the coasts of Surinam, Berbice, Demerara, and the Windward islands, resulting in the capture of the British schooner of war Pictou, of 14 guns, a letter of marque under her convoy, and several merchant vessels. In April, 1814, the Constitution was chased into the port of Marblehead by the British frigates La Nymphe and Junon. About the middle of December following, Capt. Stewart sailed in the same ship upon a second cruise, and on Feb. 20 he fell in with and captured, after an action of 40 minutes, H. B. M. ship Cyane, Capt. Falcon, mounting 34 guns, with 185 men, and the sloop of war Levant, Capt. Douglass, of 21 guns and 156 men. The Constitution mounted 52 guns with 470 men. The action was fought at night, and at the commencement of it the three ships were close-hauled and formed nearly an equilateral triangle, the Constitution being to windward. By judicious manœuvring she forced her antagonists down to leeward, and raked them both, while she avoided being raked herself. No British official account of this action has been published. By some statements the joint loss of their two ships is given at 41, while that of the Constitution was but 3 killed and 12 wounded. On March 10 the Constitution arrived at Port Praya, Cape Verd islands, with her prizes, and while a cartel was preparing to convey the prisoners to the United States a British squadron appeared in the offing. Capt. Stewart believed that the neutrality of the port would not be respected, and therefore cut his cables and put to sea, the prizes following. The squadron was composed of two line-of-battle ships and a heavy frigate, and an active chase ensued, which resulted in the recapture of the Levant. The Cyane arrived at New York on April 15, and the Constitution about the middle of May. Civic honors were bestowed upon Capt. Stewart by New York and Philadelphia; congress voted him a gold medal, and silver ones to each of his commissioned officers, and also passed a vote of thanks to him, his officers, and men; and Pennsylvania voted him a sword. From 1816 to 1820 Com. Stewart commanded a squadron in the Mediterranean, the Franklin ship of the line bearing his flag. In 1821 he hoisted his flag in the same ship for the Pacific station, where he commanded 3 years. His later services have been upon the board of navy commissioners from 1830 to 1833, and in

33 churches, and 660 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Lumpkin. II. A N. W. co. of Tenn., bordering on Ky., intersected by the Cumberland river, and bounded W. by the Tennessee; area, 700 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 9,888, of whom 2,405 were slaves. The surface is undulating and the soil very fertile. The productions in 1850 were 584,050 bushels of Indian corn, 22,020 of sweet potatoes, 43,225 of oats, 290,320 lbs. of tobacco, and 92,625 of butter. There were 11 grist mills, 9 saw mills, 5 forges, 8 tanneries, 42 churches, and 248 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Dover. STEWART, CHARLES, an American naval officer, born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1778. He entered the navy as lieutenant in March, 1798, and performed his first service in the frigate United States, Com. John Barry. He remained in this ship, which was employed in the West Indies for the protection of American commerce against French privateers, until July, 1800, when he was appointed to the command of the schooner Experiment, of 12 guns, upon the same station. While lying in Rupert's bay, island of Dominica, he ascertained that an impressed American seaman was on board H. B. M. ship Siam, whose release he demanded, and after some negotiation obtained from the English commander. On Sept. 1 the Experiment fell in with and captured, after an action of 10 minutes, the French schooner Deux Amis, of 8 guns; and soon after, while cruising near the island of Barbuda, she captured, after a very short action, the French schooner Diana, of 14 guns. In addition to these two captures, she recaptured a number of American vessels which had been taken by French privateers. In 1801 the Experiment arrived at Norfolk, Va., and was sold out of service; and in the following year Lieut. Stewart made a short cruise as first lieutenant of the frigate Constellation, employed in the blockade of Tripoli. Upon the termination of this cruise he was appointed to command the brig Siren in the squadron of Com. Edward Preble, and participated in the naval operations of 1804 against Tripoli. He coöperated with Lieut. Com. Stephen Decatur, jr., in the destruction of the frigate Philadelphia on Feb. 16, as well as in the several attacks on the city and its defences; and for his services in the bombardment of Aug. 3, 1804, he received the thanks of Com. Preble in general orders. He was promoted to the rank of master and commander, and upon the conclusion of peace with Tripoli returned to the United States in command of the frigate Constellation. In 1806 he was captain, and was employed in superintending the construction of gun boats at New York. Upon the declaration of war by the United States against England in 1812, the government resolved to withdraw the American ships of war from the ocean and devote them to harbor defence, upon the ground that they would soon be captured by the overwhelming naval force of England; but

command of the home squadron and of the naval station at Philadelphia. He has also rendered important services in the organization of the navy, and submitted to the navy department at different times valuable papers on the subject. In 1857 he was placed upon the reserved list of the navy, his advanced age, in the opinion of the board appointed under the act of congress of Jan. 16 of that year, leaving them no discretion in his case; but in March, 1859, he was placed upon the active list by special legislation under a new commission as senior flag officer. He was recently at his own request relieved from the command of the navy yard at Philadelphia, and now (1862) resides upon his estate at Bordentown, N. J.

66

STEWART, DUGALD, a Scottish metaphysician, born in Edinburgh, Nov. 22, 1753, died there, June 11, 1828. The son of Dr. Matthew Stewart, a clergyman and mathematical professor, he was educated at the high school and university of his native city, attracted notice by his taste and capacity for purely philosophical studies, heard the lectures of Reid at Glasgow during one term (1771-2), was recalled to Edinburgh to act as his father's substitute in the charge of the mathematical classes, and was formally elected conjoint professor as soon as he had completed his 21st year. For several years he was prominent in the weekly debates of the speculative society, before which he also read essays on philosophical subjects. He conducted the class in moral philosophy for one session (1778-'9), during the absence of Prof. Ferguson, upon whose resignation in 1785 he was elected his successor; and as a lecturer in this department he enjoyed the highest reputation during the next 24 years. "Probably no modern,' says Mackintosh, ever exceeded him in that species of eloquence which springs from susceptibility to literary beauty and moral excellence; which neither obscures science by prodigal ornament, nor disturbs the serenity of patient attention; but, though it rather calms and soothes the feelings, yet exalts the genius, and insensibly inspires a reasonable enthusiasm for whatever is good and fair." Lord Cockburn describes him as 66 one of the greatest of didactic orators. Had he lived in ancient times, his memory would have descended to us as that of one of the finest of the old eloquent sages." "All the years I remained about Edinburgh," says James Mill, "I used, as often as I could, to steal into Mr. Stewart's class to hear a lecture, which was always a high treat. I have heard Pitt and Fox deliver some of their most admired speeches, but I never heard any thing nearly so eloquent as some of the lectures of Prof. Stewart." It was his custom to speak from notes, not to read from full copy, a method suited to his peculiar powers, since it allowed scope to the imagination and the feelings. His aim was always moral and practical more than speculative, to portray ideal perfection and advance the harmonious

culture of all the faculties, intellectual, moral, and sensitive, rather than to teach definite solutions of intellectual problems; and his lectures therefore proceeded from psychology to theories of character and manners, life and literature, taste and the arts, politics and natural theology. The prominence which he assigned to the last subject, as the highest branch of metaphysics, was designed, as he explained, to resist the prevalent sceptical tendencies of the era of the French revolution. From the beginning he gave lectures on the theory of government as a part of the course on moral philosophy, and in 1800 he first delivered a special course on the new science of political economy. He showed no marked advances beyond the doctrines of the "Wealth of Nations," but made modifications and new applications, and had the courage to canvass fundamental questions and to maintain liberal opinions before the youth of Great Britain at a time when hostility to revolutionary tendencies prejudiced all political speculation. He did not appear as an author till 1792, when he published the first volume of "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind." In the following year he published his "Outlines of Moral Philosophy," and read before the royal society an account of the life and writings of Adam Smith, which was printed in the "Transactions," and was followed by his biographies of Dr. Robertson (1796) and Dr. Reid (1802). Nothing else appeared from his pen till the publication of the "Philosophical Essays" in 1810, though in this interval he prepared the matter of all his other writings, with a single exception. In 1806, on the accession of a whig administration, the sinecure office of gazette writer of Scotland was created for him, to which the salary of £300 per annum was attached. He accompanied in that year Lord Lauderdale on his mission to Paris. His health was failing, when in 1809 it received a severe blow by the death of his younger son, and in the following year he was obliged to retire from active duty as a professor, his successor being Dr. Thomas Brown. To divert his thoughts from his affliction, he interrupted his more elaborate work on the mind for the easier task of preparing the volume of "Philosophical Essays," which reached 3 editions in 7 years. He had meantime removed to Kinneil house, on the shore of the frith of Forth, 20 miles from Edinburgh, where he passed the remainder of his life. From this retreat he sent forth in succession the second volume of the "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind" (1814); a preliminary dissertation to the supplement of the "Encyclopædia Britannica," entitled "A General View of the Progress of Metaphysical, Ethical, and Political Science since the Revival of Letters" (part i., 1815; part ii., 1821); the third volume of the "Elements" (1827); and the "Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers" (1828), which was completed only a few weeks before his death. He had been

struck with paralysis in 1822; but though the malady deprived him of the power of speech and of the use of his right hand, it did not impair the vigor or activity of his mind, and by the aid of his daughter as an amanuensis he continued his literary studies and exertion, until a fresh paralytic shock which soon terminated fatally. A disciple of Reid, adhering to the traditions of the Scottish school, and remarkable rather as an eloquent and elegant writer than as a profound thinker, he did not even reduce to a system the theories of his predecessors; but he rendered them attractive by profuse and exquisite illustrations, and made important improvements in phraseology and classification, especially by proposing the "fundamental laws of human thought or belief" instead of the "instinct" or common sense" of his master. His collected works were edited by Sir William Hamilton (10 vols., Edinburgh, 1854-8). His lectures on political economy were first published in this edition. The last volume contains a memoir by John Veitch, with selections from his correspondence.

STEWART, JOHN, an English traveller, born in London in the first half of the 18th century, died there in 1822. He went to Madras in 1763, in the civil service of the East India company, but at the end of two years resigned his office and commenced a series of pedestrian tours through Hindostan, Persia, Nubia, and Abyssinia, in the course of which he was at different times in the service of the nabob of Arcot and of Hyder Ali. He next walked to Europe by the way of the Arabian desert; and having perambulated every part of Great Britain, he crossed the Atlantic and visited on foot many parts of the United States. The last 10 years of his life were passed in London.

STEWART, MATTHEW, a Scottish clergyman and mathematician, father of Dugald Stewart, born at Rothesay, in the isle of Bute, in 1717, died in Ayrshire, Jan. 23, 1785. He was eduested at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and entered the church. The favorite pupil of Simson, he assisted his master in investigating the porisms of Euclid, and, pursuing the same subject, discovered a series of ingenious and curious propositions, published under the title of "General Theorems" (1746). This work caused him to be elected the successor of Maclaurin in the mathematical chair of the university of Edinburgh in 1747, which position he held till 1772. He retired 3 years later to an estate in Ayrshire. His aim as a mathematician was to cherish the forms of ancient demonstration even for such problems as the algebraic calculus alone had been thought able to resolve. Thus he solved Kepler's problem by the methods of the ancients (1756). His other publications were "Four Tracts, Physical and Mathematical" (1761), and an "Essay on the Sun's Distance" (1763), in which he adhered to geometric simplicity, but stopped far short of the results since attained in physical astronomy. VOL. XV.-7

STEWART, ROBERT HENRY, MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY. See CASTLEREAGH.

STEYER, or STEIER, a town and the capital of the circle of Traun in Upper Austria, 19 m. S. E. from Lintz, at the confluence of the Steyer and Enns; pop. about 11,000. The town proper stands between the two rivers, surrounded by crenellated walls flanked with towers; there are two suburbs on the opposite shores of the Enns and Steyer, each connected with the town by a bridge. Steyer is largely engaged in the manufacture of cutlery and hardware, and is often called the Austrian Sheffield.

STICKLEBACK, the popular name of the acanthopterous fishes of the mailed-cheeked family or sclerogenida, and genus gasterosteus (Linn.). They are also called banstickles, and are the épinoches of the French. Most of the species are found in fresh water, and are from 2 to 3 inches long; the sides are more or less protected by bony plates, the other parts being without scales; very small and crowded teeth on the jaws, none on the palate; branchiostegal rays 3; tail keeled on both sides; ventrals abdominal, reduced to a strong spine, used as a weapon, and 1 or 2 soft rays; free spines, from 3 to 15 in front of the dorsal, which is supported by soft rays; bones of the pelvis large, forming an abdominal sternum. They are very active, pugnacious, and voracious fishes, feeding on aquatic insects and worms, and the fry of other fish, in the latter way often doing great mischief in fish preserves; they sometimes spring entirely out of water. They are best known, however, for the parental care which the males take of the eggs and offspring; though Aristotle knew, 22 centuries ago, that some species of fish make nests for the reception of their spawn, it is only within the last 20 years that the fact has been generally admitted by naturalists. They breed in summer, and may be conveniently watched in aquaria, making and guarding their nests and protecting the young fry; the males are the builders, and at this season have the throat carmine red and the eyes brilliant bluish green, the other parts above being ashy green and the abdomen silvery and translucent. The nest is made of delicate vegetable fibres, matted into an irregular circular mass cemented by mucus from the body, an inch or more in diameter, with the entrance near the centre; when the nest is prepared the female is enticed or driven in, and there deposits her eggs, which are fecundated by the male; the latter remains constantly on guard, swimming in the neighborhood, driving away intruders with great ferocity, frequently putting in his head to see if all is right, and fanning the water with the pectorals and caudal to secure free circulation and ventilation for the eggs. They are frequently seen shaking up the eggs, and carrying away impurities in the mouth; the young are hatched in 2 or 3 weeks; any of the small fry getting outside of the nest are instantly seized in the mouth of the parent and put back; there

are about 40 young to a nest, and if any escape far beyond its protection they are eagerly devoured by other fish of the same species always on the watch. This fish takes as good care of its young as does the hen of her chickens; for interesting details on its nidification see "Annals and Magazine of Natural History," 2d series, vol. x., pp. 241-'8 and 276-'80 (London, 1852). The common European species (G. aculeatus, Linn.; since separated into 3 by Cuvier) has 3 spines in front of the dorsal, and is found in almost every pool and rivulet in Great Britain; in some years it has been so abundant in Lincolnshire as to be used for manure. The G. spinachia (Linn.) has 14 or 15 free spinous rays on the back, and has an elongated head and body; it is a marine species, found in the northern seas of Europe. The best known of the many species in the United States are the 2-spined stickleback (G. biaculeatus, Mitch.), which is found from Labrador to New York, 2 inches long, olive green above, yellowish green on sides, with 2 distant spines on the back and a 3d near the dorsal; and the 4-spined stickleback (G. quadracus, Mitch.), of the Massachusetts and New York coasts. Other species have 8 to 10 spines, and the males in all assume the red tint in the breeding season, both in salt and fresh water.

STICKNEY, SARAH. See ELLIS, WILLIAM. STIEGLITZ, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, a German writer upon architecture, born in Leipsic, Dec. 12, 1756, died there, July 17, 1836. He was educated for the legal profession, but devoted himself chiefly to architectural and antiquarian studies, and published treatises on architecture (1786), on the use of the grotesque and arabesque (1792), and a history of the architecture of the ancients (1792). His most important works are: Encyklopädie der Baukunst der Alten (5 vols., Leipsic, 1792-'8); Zeichnungen aus der schönen Baukunst (1801), containing engravings of select specimens of modern architecture; Ueber altdeutsche Baukunst (1820), which contributed to diffuse and direct a taste for medieval art; and a valuable Geschichte der Baukunst vom frühesten Alterthume bis in die neuesten Zeiten (Nuremberg, 1827). He also published poems and dissertations on literary and antiquarian subjects, and contributed to journals and to Ersch and Gruber's Encyklopädie.

STIEGLITZ, HEINRICH, a German poet, born at Arolsen in 1803, died in Venice, Aug. 24, 1849. He completed his studies at Berlin, where in 1828 he became librarian. He married, taught in the gymnasium, published poems with moderate success, and became morbidly melancholy. His wife, who was thought to be a woman of genius, eager for his fame as a poet, and believing that only a great sorrow could restore his mind to health and activity, committed suicide in 1834, after an excursion with him in Russia. Her letters and diary were collected by Mundt in Charlotte Stieglitz, ein Denkmal (Berlin, 1835). Her death had

not the effect which she anticipated, and from that time he is stated to have travelled hurriedly, as if accursed, from city to city, publishing occasional poems. His best productions are: Bilder des Orients (4 vols., Leipsic, 1831'3); Stimmen der Zeit in Liedern (2d ed., 1834); and Das Dionysusfest (Berlin, 1836).

STIGMARIA. See COAL PLANTS.

STILES, EZRA, D.D., an American clergyman, born at North Haven, Conn., Dec. 10, 1727, died in New Haven, May 12, 1795. He was graduated at Yale college in 1746, and was a tutor there from 1749 to 1755. Dr. Franklin having sent an electrical apparatus to Yale college, Mr. Stiles, with one of his fellow tutors, entered with great zeal upon this then new field of philosophical investigation, and performed the first electrical experiments ever made in New England. At the same time he was pursuing the study of theology, and commenced preaching in June, 1749. In April, 1750, he visited the Housatonic tribe of Indians at Stockbridge, and preached among them so acceptably that he was earnestly solicited by the society for propagating the gospel among the Indians to take charge of the mission there, but his imperfect health obliged him to decline the proposal. He then studied law, in 1753 was admitted to the bar, and practised the profession at New Haven for the two following years. In Feb. 1755, he pronounced a Latin oration in honor of Dr. Franklin, on occasion of his visiting New Haven, and was from that time in intimate relations with him till they were terminated by death. In 1756 he became pastor of the 2d church in Newport, R. I., and during his residence there devoted himself assiduously to his professional duties, and found time also for literary and scientific investigations, corresponding with learned men in almost every part of the world. In 1767 he began the study of the Hebrew and other oriental languages, and pursued it with great avidity. His congregation at Newport being entirely broken up by the British occupation of the place, in May, 1777, he removed to Portsmouth, N. H., to become pastor of the North church. In September following he was elected president of Yale college, and shortly after professor of ecclesiastical history in connection with the presidency, and in June, 1778, entered on his official duties. After the decease of Professor Daggett in 1780, he discharged the duties of professor of divinity, beside which he gave each week one or two dissertations on some philosophical or astronomical subject. His labors for the college were intense and uninterrupted during the residue of his life. He published a funeral oration in Latin on Governor Law (1751); a Latin oration on his induction to his office as president (1778); an "Account of the Settlement of Bristol" (1785); "History of three of the Judges of Charles I." (1795); and 5 occasional sermons. His life has been written by James L. Kingsley, in Sparks's "American Biography," 1st series, vol. vi.