Workers, by Henry Matson, for general subjects in history, biography, politics, political economy, education, literature, art, science, philosophy, ethics, and religion; and to Brookings and Ringwalt's Briefs for Debates, or to almost any one of the many recent books on argumentation for propositions suitable for debate. It may be well, however, to state here some of the conditions of a good question for discussion, and to suggest some methods of preparation for debate.

1. Question for Debate. A good question for debate should be a complete statement of a proposition of vital interest at the present time and well worth investigation and discussion. It must have two sides as evenly balanced as possible, so that a speaker on either side may form a definite conviction upon the merits of the question. It should be stated affirmatively in clearly defined terms, without ambiguity, and with a definite fixing of the Burden of Proof with the affirmative and the Presumption with the negative side. The main issue should be specific and capable of solution. As a rule, social or economic questions that have some strong human interest at stake bring out the most spirited discussion among younger debaters.

2. Preparation for Discussion. The preparation for debate or the discussion of any subject should include a wide reading of books, magazines, and newspapers which give correct reports of public speeches and messages, accurate accounts of current events, and wise editorial discussions. The student must study both sides of the question and know what may be said for and against the proposition. He should examine his own mind, clear it of all prejudice, and distinguish between vague speculation and a clearly defined opinion based on experience, authority, or evidence. As he reads he should discriminate between strong and weak points, quote correctly, note the references so that they may be verified, and arrange the arguments in the form of a Brief which sets forth all the facts, evidence, and proofs in a logical, climactic outline suitable for a speech.

NOTE. Since the Debate is a much-used form of public speaking among secondary schools and colleges, as well, it may be further suggested as a method that the debate class be divided into an equal number of affirmative and negative teams of two or three speakers each. After due preparation on some selected question, these teams should discuss the question, each speaker making a set speech of five to ten minutes of main argument followed by a round of extempore rebuttals of shorter duration. For the next meeting the teams might change sides, so that each speaker may study both sides of the question and have drill in both affirmative and negative discussion. At times the instructor may see fit to offer the question for general extempore debate, allowing each student choice of sides, but requiring a brief time limit for each speech.

Interest may be added by the occasional service of local judges, who should render decision not on the merits of the question (which may or may not be evenly balanced), but upon the basis of effective debating.

Further interest may be aroused by forming a triangular debating league with two other near-by schools; in which case each school secures, by local competition, one affirmative and one negative team of three speakers and one alternate each, to meet the opposing schools. Each institution holds one debate at home and sends her other team against one of the other schools the same day and hour, all three schools thus discussing the same question simultaneously. A presiding officer should enforce parliamentary rules, and a set of three or five judges should render decision by ballot on the merits of the debate.

CHAPTER III

THE PLAN OF THE SPEECH AND ITS ESSENTIAL
QUALITIES

No matter what the occasion and audience, the kind of discourse or the subject discussed, all speeches should be constructed according to a well-ordered plan and contain certain qualities which distinguish them from the language of the printed page intended only for silent perusal. A speech must be essentially speakable in structure, and in language which responds easily to oral expression.

SECTION I. THE PLAN

1. The Plan of a speech corresponds to the plot of a story or play. It prevents digression, insures logical sequence and growth, and secures proportion. All speeches, however simple or elaborate, should have at least an Introduction, a Main Discussion, and a Conclusion. The extent and development of these three divisions in their proper relation and proportion will depend largely upon the importance of the occasion, the personnel of the audience, the kind of speech proposed, and the subject considered. The following characteristics of a somewhat formal speech may be noted:

I. The Introduction. The object of an Introduction is to put the speaker on good terms with his audience and awaken attention and interest in his theme or proposition. It should be local as to time, place, and object of the occasion; concrete in statement and not an announcement of abstract generalities; deferential to the audience and to the preceding speaker if there be any, fair and conciliatory in motive if conciliation is needed, but devoid of apology or flattery; and it should introduce the subject as favorably as possible and with becoming brevity. The manner of the speaker should be modest, sincere, and dignified, but not strained into stiffness or over-formality.

2. The Main Discussion. Different kinds of speeches naturally require more or less elaboration of the main discourse, but we may here suggest a method that will apply alike to all kinds of speeches, namely, the Historical, the Logical, and the Distributive Order.

(1) The Historical Order arranges all facts and incidents chronologically so far as their occurrence may conform to the unity of the speech and contribute to its main issue. This would be a good method for committee reports, certain topical speeches, valedictory and inaugural addresses, and commemorative orations.

(2) The Logical Order links all facts, propositions, testimonies, evidences, proofs, and arguments into a complete chain of argumentation to convince and persuade. It must conform to the main canons of common logic and it may employ the intricate technicalities of Formal logic. This method is most suitable to Business Remarks, Debates, Didactic Lectures, and to Civic Orations of an economic nature.

(3) The Distributive Order arranges related matters into groups and distributes these groups according to their relation to each other and to the general aim of the speech. This distribution must conform unswervingly to the three great principles of Unity, Climax, and Proportion. This method requires the exercise of the clearest judgment, and has been much used by our greatest orators. It is especially appropriate to Afterdinner speeches, Salutatory and Commencement Addresses, Platform Lectures, Panegyric Orations, and to Civic Orations of a sociological nature.

3. The Conclusion or Peroration. This is the place of peril for the speaker and his cause, and is a crucial test for the skill of the orator. 66 'Here," as Dr. Sears puts it, "truth is to be established, the moral to be inculcated, the memory to be renewed and perpetuated, . . . and the verdict to be secured.” If the discourse is only the simplest Topical Speech, it should be rounded out in the Conclusion so that it does not "stop short" and leave an unfinished impression; if it rises to the formality of a great Address or Oration, the Peroration should be carefully prepared in thought, language, and delivery. The main characteristics of the Peroration are Summary, Eloquence, Brevity, and Termination.

(1) The Summary should be a brief epitome of the main points of the discourse in wholly different phraseology, that, as Cicero states, "the recollection may be revived, not the speech repeated." New matter should not be introduced here, as it would be too late to develop its discussion; and care should be

exercised that the Summary shall not drivel into a mere cataloguing of all the points of the Main Discussion.

(2) Eloquence. There should be no appeals to the emotions that the promise of the Introduction and the discussions of the Main Discourse do not justify, nor should a speaker assume an emotion merely for effect or overdo one that is real; but the touch of eloquence in the Peroration inspired by genuine conviction may be employed to clinch the nails of logic or cap the climax of persuasion.

(3) Brevity. The conclusion of different speeches will, of necessity, vary in length according to the style and the time given to the body of the speech; but in all cases the abundance of thought should be boiled down to the sweetest morsels and the conclusion be made as brief as the occasion will allow.

(4) Termination. As technically used here, this word signifying "the act of ending or concluding" is intended to convey the idea of a certain cadential note or closing style which impels the audience to desire to know "the conclusion of the whole matter." That note, once sounded, implies a contract with the audience, who, in turn, have a right to expect the speaker to stop. The repeated utterance of such expressions as "lastly," "finally," or "in conclusion," is tiresome to the audience; and a fresh start in the Peroration is fatally disappointing. To be a good speaker one should be a good "stopper."

SECTION II. THE QUALITIES OF DISCOURSE

The qualities of style have been variously treated by rhetoricians, but all the terms thus far used may be included in the three words Clearness, Force, and Persuasiveness, which, in turn, correspond respectively to the Mental, Vital, and Emotive natures of man.

1. Clearness is that Quality of discourse by which a given thought is presented intelligibly to the particular mind addressed. Clearness is not an absolute but a relative term. All reasoning