Tibet, including the Seefaun. The Lantsan-keeaung rises in 34° 30 N. lat. and 22° W. of Pekin, according to the Lama's map, and enters Yunnan under the name of the Lak-choo, whence it proceeds to the country of the Northern Laos.-To the W. of this river runs another called Kara-oossoo, the modern Loo-keeaung of Yunnan; and to the W. of this is the Longchuen-keeaung. We cannot say that we are exactly of the same opinion with Klaproth respecting the geographical merits of the edict above referred to. He appears to have got it up mainly for the purpose of contradicting our learned countrymen of Calcutta, and the German journalists of Weimar who have happened to coincide with them in their opinion, that the Seree Serhit of the Bor Khampti country is the genuine Irrawaddy of Ava; whilst the Sanpo of Tibet on the one hand, and the Nou-keeang of Yunnan on the other, are both denied to be the Irrawaddy. From modern geographical ignorance of the region between Tibet and Ava, and to the W. and S.W. of Yunnan, it has been found hitherto impossible to delineate the lower courses of the Tibetian rivers W. of the Lantsan-keeaung, and identify them with those streams that intersect the countries of Ava, Pegu, and Siam.

Climate.] In this respect to reason analogically-Eastern Tibet must bear a great resemblance to Western Tibet; and our actual knowledge of its climate is confined to that part which lies to the S. of the Sanpo. In the temperature of the seasons a remarkable uniformity prevails in Tibet, both in their periodical duration and return. The same division of these takes place as in Bengal. The spring is from March to May, with a variable atmosphere and heat, thunder-storms, and occasional showers. From June to September is the humid season, when heavy and continued rains swell the rivers. From October to March a clear and uniform sky succeeds, seldom obscured by fogs or clouds. For three months of this season a degree of cold, far greater than is known in Europe, prevails. On the southern confines of Tibet its extreme severity has been felt by such as have crossed its mountainous frontier, whether to Tushooloomboo or Lassa. On this rest eternal snows and permanent congelation; and its vicinity is at all times remarkable for the violence and dryness of the winds.

Soil and Productions.] In such a lofty region, and in a climate where the inhabitants are obliged to seek for refuge in the valleys and hollows, —and where, from the glare of light reflected from the snow, they are subjected to ophthalmia and blindness, we cannot expect much fertility of soil, or abundance of vegetable and farinaceous produce. Yet in some of the valleys grain is abundant; as in that of Jhansee Jeung, where, as Turner passed on his way to Tushooloomboo, abundant crops of ripe corn bordered the road, and numerous clusters of villages on both sides delighted the eye. The autumn being clear and serene, the farmer spreads his corn on the ground to dry, then employs oxen to tread it. If Bootan seems to possess the pabulum of vegetable, in Tibet we find a superabundance of animal life. The variety and quantity of wild fowl, game, and beasts of prey, are astonishing. In Bootan, on the contrary, except domestic animals, nothing of the sort is to be seen. Turner met with no wild animal in Bootan but the monkey, and amid all his travels through it, he saw no game except a few pheasants near Chuka. It is not till near the source of the Patchieu, at the foot of Somoonang, that wild animals begin to appear.

Inhabitants.] Such a large and mountainous region must contain a number of distinct tribes, all classed under the common name of Tibetians,

but of which very little is known. Besides these properly so called, as the aborigines of the country, we know but of two other classes, the Thorpo and the Hor.

The former of these tribes dwell to the N. of this region between the Yarkea Sanpo on the S. and the Cobi on the N., and to the W. of the sources of the Keeang Koo, between the eastern frontier of Khotaun and the tract through which the road passes from Lassa to Sining. They speak a distinct language both from the Kalmucks and the Tibetians. Moorcroft has confounded them with the Eluths who are themselves Kalmucks, though at the same time he distinguishes them from the Hor or Sogpo, who are an Eluth tribe. Klaproth calls them a tribe of Nomadic Toorks, called Ka-tche by the Tibetians (or Big mouths) and Katsi by the Chinese They are the descendants of the Oigoor tribes, who dwelt in the same tract during the time of the Ywen dynasty in China, and who then bore the name of Kara Oigoors, or Black Oigoors. These then are the longlost and sought-for Oigoors, who made such a figure in the history of Jenghis Khan, and who seemed, from our ignorance, to have vanished quite out of sight, like their ancient neighbours the Hyongnoo. Their country is called Kara Tibet, and they are divided into two classes, the Upper and Lower Oigoors. They were subdivided in 1573 by Altun Khagan, one of the Mongolian chiefs, to the N. of the Great Wall, as we are informed by Schmidt, out of the Mongolian history, which calls them Tibetians as well as Oigoors, as being a Tibetian tribe, and also calls them Boodhists, which completely overthrows Klaproth's notion that they are a Turkish tribe and Mohammedans.

The Hor are a branch of the Eluth stem, who roam to the N. of the Kara-Noor. Hor, or Hor-pa, is the Tibetian name for the Mongolian race generally, who are called by the appellation of Gheea Hor, or Gheea of Hor, or the people of Hor, whilst the name of this tribe in Mongolian is Siraigol, or Karagol. They are also called by the Tibetians Sogh-po, or wanderers, and Gheea Sogh, or the people of the prairies, because they wander in the Steppes, In Carey's Tibetian lexicon the names Hor and Sogh-po are rendered by the word Tartars, and their country, Sogh-tool, is rendered Tartary. These Hor or Sogh-po are the Kala Soogpa Tartars of Kirkpatrick, who inhabit the country N. of Joongah, reckoned the highest ground in Tibet.

Besides the Thorpo or Oigoors of the district of Kara Tibet and the Hor or Sogh-po, we know of no other distinct tribes in Tibet, though doubtless there are more, as several languages, or at least dialects, are spoken there. Whether the priesthood are a different stock from the shepherds and goatherds is impossible to determine, but there is ground to suspect so, and that they are of Hindoo origin; that they came from Hindoostar, and imported hither the system of Boodh, and by means of it and their superior learning and science, obtained a complete ascendancy over the simple and ignorant aborigines, who are a poor harmless race, with little else to employ them than the care of their flocks. Mr Manningwho staid long on the frontier with a design of entering the country and of gaining access to Lassa, but who was prevented from obtaining his purpose by the ever-watchful jealousy of the Chinese-found the natives like the Afghauns, strongly marked with Jewish features, and a race totally distinct from the Mongols, Chinese, or Hindoos; and in fact they have a tradition that they came originally hither from the W.

Language and Literature.] Whatever might have been the spoken

language or languages in Tibet previous to the introduction of Boodhism, one thing we are certain of, that no written character or alphabet was used or even known, till that epoch. Although the age of Boodha himself, or the author of the system which bears his name, was at least ten centuries anterior to our æra, yet his system was not introduced into Tibet until a period comparatively modern, although it is impossible to fix the date of its introduction. It is certain, however, that the present Tibetian language and literature are of Hindoo origin. The priesthood-who are possessed of whatever literature exists in Tibet-point to Benares as the source whence all their learning has been derived. It appears that the Tibetians received both their alphabetical characters from Hindoostan about the middle of the 7th century. Mr Moorcroft, in a written communication from Cashmere, in 1823, to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, has given a sketch of the language of Tibet, illustrated by drawings of the various alphabets used there. According to this account, not less than 10 varieties of character are employed in that country for familiar and religious purposes. Commerce and Manufactures.

Excepting the manufacture of idols, we know almost nothing of Tibetian commerce or manufactures; but we may presume that they have a considerable commerce with China. Formerly a considerable commerce was carried on with Bengal through Nepaul, but since 1792 this has been totally stopped by the timid jealousy of the celestial court. No money is coined in Tibet, being forbidden by the principles of their religion, and a very adulterated coin is the common medium of exchange

Religion.] Tibet is the chief seat of Boodhism and of its incarnated head. The influence of this spiritual lord extends over the whole of Central Asia, and he formerly united in his own person the regal as well as the sacerdotal character. The latter he still preserves in its fullest extent, in his own name and by means of spiritual vicars, who reside in different parts of his vast spiritual domain; but his regal power has of late been exercised by the emperor of China, who acts in his name, and has got military possession of all Tibet under the covert of pious protection, especially since Teeshooloomboo was plundered by the Nepaulese, which rendered the political intervention of China necessary to protect a spiritual potentate who could not defend his own territories. According to such Tibetian accounts as Turner could collect, Kanka Grinbo was the first lama who pretended to the sacred character of an incarnated deity, (or rather of Boodha,) and the emperor of China, convinced of the truth of his pretensions, conferred on him the regal and sacerdotal functions in the year 1100.

Government.] The administration of affairs is managed by four ghylongs, each of whom has the administration of one-fourth of Tibet. Under these the civil and military affairs are conducted by the respectable Chinese who dwell at Lassa, and whose nomination must be approved by the Dalai lama. They are generally chosen from amongst the wealthy families, and distinguish themselves as much by their intellectual capacity as by their irreproachable conduct. The Tibetian army is composed, according to father Hyacinth's Chinese author, of 60,000 men, of whom 15,000 are cavalry. The levy is said to be made with great impartiality, one man out of 10 is ordinarily taken. This, if correct, would give 600,000 men fit to bear arms; and this, if reckoned one-fourth of the population, would give 2,400,000 as the population of Tibet; but to this must be added all those who belong to the religious orders, whether male or female, so that the population may verhaps amount to 3,000,000

Manners and Customs.]

Of these very little is known. As might be expected in so cold a climate, the Tibetians use very warm clothing, such as we have already described in our account of Western Tibet. The houses of the peasantry are meanly constructed, and resemble brick-kilns, being built of rough stones heaped on each other, with a few apertures to admit light, and a flat terrace for the roof, surrounded with a small parapet. In their food the Tibetians uniformly prefer crude undressed meat, of which kind mutton is almost solely used, and at their feasts the table is seen spread with joints of raw fresh mutton as well as boiled, the former being most esteemed. They have no occasion to salt their meat during winter, as it will remain fresh during the whole season, from the coldness and dryness of the air. Tea is a favourite beverage amongst them. The milk of the yak is much used as food, and is a great article of commerce. This most useful animal gives abundance of this lacteal fluid, rich, and yielding most excellent butter, which is easily preserved in skins or bladders excluding the air. It keeps in this cool dry climate during all the year, so that after some time tending their flocks, when a sufficient stock is accumulated, they have only to load the yaks and drive them to a proper market, with their own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most material article of merchandize. These animals serve the Tibetians for riding, clothing, and food; and their fine soft silky bushy tails serve as ornaments both to the peasant and the prince. The Tibetians are said to be polyandrists; one woman having several husbands. The eldest brother of the family is said to have the privilege of choosing his wife, but she becomes the common property of all the brothers, however numerous. We greatly doubt, however, the truth of this. As to the rites of burial, we have different accounts. Some are burned, others buried, others thrown into a river, others taken and bruised to pieces, bones and all, and formed into balls, which are given to be devoured by a species of kites, which are esteemed sacred. But the general mode of disposing of the dead is like that of the Parsees of Bombay: they are exposed in the open air, and left to be devoured by carnivorous birds. A place set apart for this purpose was seen by Turner and his suite, when descending the mountain Soomoonong into the plain of Pharee. But a fate far different is reserved for the body of the sovereign lamas, the Dalai lama, and the Teeshoo lama. Soon as the soul of Boodha or Sacyo-Moonee has left the body, the latter is placed upright in an attitude of devotion, the legs being folded under him, with each thigh resting on the instep, and the soles of the feet turned upwards; in this posture they are deposited in shrines. The inferior lamas have their remains usually burned, and their ashes deposited in small metallic idols. Over the shrines of the deceased sovereign lamas, splendid pyramidal mausoleums are built. The Tibetians, as might be expected in so mountainous and so secluded a country, and immersed as they are in all the monstrosities of Lamaism, are very superstitious. Every hill, cave, mountain, or inaccessible place, every glen and stream, is the habitation of spirits and supernatural beings. Every village has its dæmon, or protecting genius, to whom respect is paid, either from fear or gratitude. Spirits, ghosts, and other imaginary objects of terror, are quite common in vulgar belief. But sunk as the Tibetians are in the most abject subjection to the lamas and monks, they are comparatively an amiable, mild, humane race, and quite free from many of the cruel and sanguinary customs of the Hindoos. There is no selling of female infants, as in Bischur and Sirinagur; no putting them to death as among the Rajpoots; no ex

posure of children on trees, or on the banks of the Ganges; nor drowning them in the sacred stream to propitiate an offended deity; nor funeral piles whereon widows are burnt to accompany the manes of their deceased busbands. In Tibet it must be said that the system of Boodha exercises a more benignant sway than the cruel multifarious system of Brahma, and the obscene sanguinary rites of Juggernaut.

Cities.] The greater number of places marked on the map of Tibet as given by the lamas, seem, as Malte Brun very justly remarks, to be nothing more than villages, or groups of cabins, each surrounding some temple. According to the Dai-Syn-itoundchi, there are but 16 cities in all Tibet. Of these Lassa and Teeshooloomboo only deserve notice. Lassa, called Khlassa by the Tibetians, is seated on the Kaltjoo Mooren, a tributary of the Sanpo, and 24 miles N.E. of the chain bridge across that stream, in a spacious plain. It is a small city, says Malte Brun, but the houses are built of stone, very spacious and very lofty. It is represented by others as a large city, and the Chinese officer, whose account has been given by Hyacinth, affirms that the vast palace, the streets, and bazaars, are worthy to fix the attention. This city was encompassed with a wall, but the chief military governor of the west having demolished it, rebuilt it anew, and had it excellently constructed of granite, and surrounded by a strong stone mole 30 li in length, and which encloses all the sacred space, and defends it against the inundations of the river. It is the seat of the Tibetian government, and of the Chinese mandarins appointed to act as overseers. It is inhabited by merchants and artisans. The famous mountain 7 miles S.E. of the city, on which is the palace of the great lama, is called Putala, or the Holy Mountain; but according to the Chinese, this is only the name of the palace, whilst the mountain is called Mar-Buli, or Pamuri. This palace or temple is crowned with a gilt dome 62 Chinese fathoms high. If each of these be 10 feet, as the Jesuits tell us, the elevation must be enormous, amounting to 620 feet. The exterior is said to be adorned with numberless pyramids of gold and silver, and the 10,000 rooms (a Chinese hyperbole) of the interior contain an immense number of idols of the same precious metals. During the first month of every year, all the lamas from every part of Tibet assemble in this temple to perform their religious service. The Chinese keep a strong garrison in Lassa, commanded by an officer called Zewan Norba, or chief of the army of the west.-Teeshooloomboo is the seat of Pantschin, or Bantschan Rimbochay, the second great lama. It is a monastery, containing 300 or 400 houses, inhabited by monks, besides temples, mausoleums, and the palace of the sacred personage. Of this place we have an excellent account from Turner, who visited it in 1783. The buildings are all of stone, with flat roofs, and parapets of heath, and small boughs. It is defended at a small distance by the fortress of SheegatcheeJeung, seated on the prominence of a lofty rock. The plain of Teeshooloomboo is perfectly level, and everywhere surrounded by rocky hills. Its direction is N. and S. about 15 miles, and from E. to W. about 5 miles. The rock on which is seated the monastery is the loftiest in all the vicinity, and commands an extensive view, and the Sanpo is visible to the N. flowing in a widely extended bed, containing many islands, but the principal channel is narrow, deep, and rapid. At a distance, Teeshooloomboo has a grand appearance. If its magnificence, says Turner, could be increased by any external cause, none could more superbly have adorned its numerous gilded canopies and turrets, than the sun rising in full splendour