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grees below in ignorance, from the defect of a bad education. I have more. hopes of the Indian population (who are five-sixths of the whole) than from either the descendants of the Europeans, or the mixed breed.

Languages.] Of the various languages spoken throughout New Spain, the Mexican is the chief. The grammars and dictionaries which have been published of this language show it to differ essentially from the Peruvian. The words frequently end in tl, and are besides of a surprising and unpronounceable length, resembling in this respect the languages of the North American savages, and some of the African dialects; but strongly contrasted with those of Asia, in which the most polished, as the Chinese, are monosyllabic. According to Clavigero, the Mexican tongue wants the consonants b, d, f, g, r, and s,-in this respect strictly coinciding with the Peruvian language, except that the latter, instead of the s, is said to want the z. Some of the Mexican words are sixteen syllables in length, and are from this circumstance harsh and unpleasant to the ear.

The Spanish colonists being chiefly of Andalusian descent, the Spanish language is spoken with an accent disagreeable to a Castilian ear, and is much corrupted in New Spain; an infinity of foreign expressions having been adopted, and a new meaning given to many words and phrases.

Literature.] The genius of the Catholic religion, the establishment of the inquisition, and the selfish policy of the mother-country, combined with the habits and pursuits of the colonists themselves, have so effectually cooperated to a seclusion of almost all knowledge in this country, that the colonists may be said to have vegetated like the acorn in the forest; they are but beginning to see, through the darkness of the gloom that surrounds them, the light of day. The education of the lower classes has been utterly neglected; and though instructed in some of the ritual observances of Catholicism, yet this instruction seldom goes farther than to teach them to adore the Virgin, and to make the sign of the cross; whilst in the Indian villages ignorance is carefully fostered, and the ancient idolatry frequently winked at by their caziques. The education of the higher classes has been somewhat better attended to; and in the universities there are some professors who may pass for learned. The rudiments of science only were taught in these seminaries; and these were diffused over a very narrow surface, as the possession of learning and science conferred no distinction, and led to no emolument, in a country where the simple fact of not being born in Spain was an effectual exclusion from all promotion. Such injudicious and selfish policy has long operated as a bar to all literary industry and aspiring genius. Some incipient rays of light have, however, lately appeared; and there is some reason to hope that the darkness will be gradually dispelled. The method of study has been reformed in the seminaries of Mexico; and in place of scholastic subtilties, the belles lettres and other useful studies begin to be substituted. Reading is become an article of request among the higher classes of Creoles; and a number of modern scientific institutions have been lately formed at Mexico." Most of the people in the cities," says a recent traveller, "can read and write. I would not be understood as including the leperos; but I have frequently remarked men clothed in the garb of extreme poverty, reading the gazettes in the street. Of these there are three published every other day in the week, which are sold for 12 cents a-piece; and pamphlets and loose sheets are hawked about and sold at a reasonable rate. There are several booksellers' shops, which are but scantily supplied with books. The booksellers have hitherto laboured under all the disadvantages

of the prohibitory system of the Roman catholic church, but are now endeavouring to furnish themselves with the best modern works. The few books to be found in the shops are extravagantly dear. There are several valuable private libraries; and many Creole gentlemen, who have visited Europe, have a taste both for literature and the fine arts. This is certainly more rare among those who have never been out of their own country The means of education were more limited under the colonial system, and liberal studies were discouraged. The Latin language, law, theology, and philosophy, were taught in the colleges, and only so much of the latter as the clergy thought might be taught with safety. The children of the nobility and wealthy inhabitants are principally taught at home. The places of public instruction in the greatest repute, are the Seminario and San Ildefonza. Lancasterian schools were established in the capital by the emperor; and his ex-majesty assured Mr Bullock, that it was his intention to extend them throughout the provinces. "There are now," says this traveller, "three or four daily papers (1823); but they contain very little information; they are only just beginning to insert advertisements, gratis, in the same manner as they were in England at the commencement of our newspapers." Medical and chirurgical knowledge is represented to be at the lowest ebb. Dissections are not allowed by law. "An able oculist would be a valuable acquisition and blessing to Mexico, where diseases of the eye are so prevalent: there is not a native who can perform an operation. Several young physicians from the United States had arrived, and were getting into practice, although labouring under the great disadvantage of not knowing the Spanish language." Since the period of this traveller's visit to Mexico, there is reason, however, to believe that some improvement has taken place. One of the first objects to which all the republican governments have turned their attention, has been the means of public instruction.

The university of Mexico was founded in 1551, under the denomination of the royal and pontifical university; the cloister was composed of 251 doctors, who possessed every faculty but that of reasoning. There have been as many as 200 students at one time in this institution, but there were, in 1822, very few. A public library was founded about 50 years since for the use of the university, and is well stocked with books of old scholastic theology; but it would be in vain to expect, in this library, new editions of the classics, or new works in science and philosophy; because (says Estalla) certain incidents have prevented the full enjoyment of the revenues, though equal to any in Spain. There are several other colleges in Mexico, as one founded by the archbishop of Guadalajara; a seminary founded by the archbishop of Mexico, in 1682, according to the exact method ordered by the council of Trent; the college of St John de Lateran; and 5 colleges formerly belonging to the Jesuits.

A deficiency having at length been observed of men capable of directing the mineralogic operations so general in New Spain, a Mineria, or college of mines, was instituted some years ago, where youth were instructed not only in that science, but in other important branches of education; but the funds of this excellent institution have been diverted to other purposes. Another recent institution, which has shared the same fate, was the academy of the three arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting. This academy owed its birth to the patriotism of several Mexican individuals, and to the exertions of the minister Galvez. The government assigned to it a noble and spacious building, and the revenues

amounted to £5,208 sterling annually. This establishment produced a surprising effect on the architectural taste, as displayed in the symmetry of the buildings, the perfection of the stone-hewing, and the ornaments of the capitals and stucco relievos, and in the vast number of grand and beautiful stone edifices in the cities of Mexico, Guanaxuato, and Queretaro. This establishment has been recommended to the attention of the new legislature.

Religion and Ecclesiastical Government.] Roman catholicism, in its inost rigid form, is the religion established in Mexico. The ecclesiastical government is under the jurisdiction of 1 archbishop and 8 bishops. The Mexican clergy were estimated by Humboldt at 10,000, the half of whom were regulars. If lay brethren and sisters be included, the whole number would be about 14,000. The annual revenue of the Mexican bishops collectively, amounted, previous to the revolution, to 539,000 dollars, or £121.225 sterling: thus

The inequality of fortune, so conspicuous in New Spain, is still more conspicuous among the clergy,-many of the lower orders of whom, in the archbishopric of Mexico, do not possess incomes exceeding £25 sterling annually. The chapter of the Mexican cathedral contains 26 ecclesiastics. The dean has 10,000 dollars, the canons from 7,000 to 9,000 dollars, and the lesser canons from 2,000 to 4,000 dollars annually.

The inferior clergy of New Spain are divided into curas, doctrineros, and missionaros. The first are parish-priests in those parts of the country where the Spaniards have settled. The second have the charge of the Indian districts subjected to the Spanish government, and living under its protection. The third are employed in instructing and converting the fiercer tribes, which disdain subjection to the Spaniards, and live in remote or inaccessible regions, where the Spanish arms have not yet penetrated. Of these three orders, the first are the best paid, some curacies being worth many thousand dollars, and one in the archbishopric of Mexico is worth 14,000 dollars, or £3,150 sterling, annually. Many of the curates run a successful career of ambition, and become deans, prebends, and bishops. Of these three orders, the first are what are denominated in the Catholic nomenclature, seculars; and the two last regulars, who are not under the control of any diocesan, and belong to the four mendicant orders of monks. The secular clergy have produced hitherto no men of talents or erudition; and it is to the regulars alone that the Americans, whether Creoles or natives, are indebted for any portion of knowledge which they possess ; and it is to them only that we are indebted for any information respecting the climate and productions of Spanish America, and the former and present state of the natives. The first attempts to instruct the natives were made by monks, and the business of Indian conversion is lodged wholly in their hands. Whenever a call for new missionaries is made, men of the most ardent and aspiring minds, impatient of the ennui and restraint of a cloister, eagerly offer their services, and repair to the New World in quest of

fiberty and distinction. As to the character and moral conduct of the clergy, various and contradictory statements have been given. A considerable reformation in morals has taken place among them since the exclusion of the regulars from filling parochial cures has been effected; and the bulk of the inferior clergy, who perform the drudgery of the office, are said to be liberal and well-informed men. The following remark of Pike concerning the inferior clergy, is worthy of notice, as it has been confirmed since by recent events:-"I scarcely saw one of them who was not in favour of a revolution. Being generally Creoles by birth, and always kept in subordinate grades, without the least shadow of probability of rising to the superior dignities of the church, their minds have been soured to such a degree, that I am confident in asserting, that they will lead the van, whenever the standard of independence is raised in the country." This prediction has been exactly and recently verified; for a Creole priest, named Hidalgo, a man of abilities, eloquence, and information, was the prime mover of all the disturbances that have since agitated Mexico: and though he lost his life in the attempt, his place was soon supplied by another priest named Morilos.

Romish superstition appears in all its pomp in New Spain. The churches and convents are magnificently built and richly adorned; and on high festivals, the display of gold, silver, and precious stones, is such as to exceed European conceptions. The rail round the high altar of the cathedral of Mexico is of solid silver; and there is a silver lamp, so capacious, that three men get in to clean it; while it is also enriched with lions' heads, and other ornaments in pure gold. The images of the virgin and other saints are either solid silver, or covered with gold and precious stones. The cathedral of Chihuahua is the most superb edifice in New Spain. The whole front is covered with statues of the apostles and the different saints, set in niches of the wall; and the windows, doors, &c. are ornamented with sculpture. The interior decorations are immensely rich. The cost of this building, including the decorations, was 1,500,000 dollars, or £375,000 sterling; and was defrayed by a tax of 12 per cent. on every ingot of gold or silver taken out of the neighbouring mines. "In this country," says a recent writer," your eyes are tired and your ears stunned with the luxurious churches, convents, &c. &c., and their fatiguing music. Their gold and silver, collected by such cunning industry, may ere long atone for its nefarious mode of acquisition, by the use it will, perhaps, alone be put to. Those who at present enjoy the benefit, have lost, and are losing daily, their power over the multitude, having long lost all moral influence over the few that rule; which reduction of the power of the priests is much accelerated by the banishing the old Spaniards, who, though so lately possessing all the power and the greatest part of the wealth, made so great an abuse of both as to be so detested by the people, that their banishment is one of the most popular acts of the legislators, without any temptation of property; for neither those who emigrated by their own good-will, nor those that were banished for their intrigue have lost one cent of their perhaps ill-gotten wealth."

CHAP. VI.-MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.

MANUFACTURES have made some progress in Mexico, notwithstanding the long narrow and restrictive policy of the Spanish government: their

total value was estimated by Humboldt at 8,000,000 dollars, or Z.1,800,000 sterling. In the intendancy of Guadalajara, in 1802, cotton and woollen cloths, to the value of 1,601,200 dollars, or L.360,240 sterling; tanned hides to the value of 418,900 dollars, or L.94,252 10s. sterling; and soap to the amount of 268,400 dollars, or L.59,390 sterling; total, 2,288,000 dollars, or L.513,912 108. sterling, were manufactured. The cotton-manufactures of the intendancy of Puebla furnished annually, in time of peace, a produce of 1,500,000 dollars, or L.337,500 sterling, for interior commerce. This produce was not derived from large manufactories, but from a great number of looms dispersed throughout the towns of La Puebla, Cholulo, Huexocingo, and Tlascala. At Queretaro, 200,000 lbs. of cotton wool were consumed in the manufacture of mantas and rebozos, or mantles and mufflers, and 32 Spanish ells each, were annually made. ed, in 1802, 1,200 weavers of all sorts. Mexico, the printing of calicoes has made few years.

20,000 pieces of mantas, of The city of Puebla contain Here, and in the vicinity of great progress within these

The oldest woollen manufactories of Mexico were those of Tezcuco, which were chiefly established, in 1592, by Velasco, but have since passed almost entirely into the hands of the Indians and Mestizoes of Queretaro and Puebla. The woollen and cloth stuffs manufactured at the former place produce 600,000 dollars of annual value, or L.135,000 sterling; and consume 63,900 arrobas, or 1,613,500 lbs. of Mexican sheep wool. With the exception of a few stuffs of cotton mixed with silk, the manufacture of silks is at present nearly annihilated in Mexico. There are considerable manufactures of hard soap at Puebla, Mexico, and Guadalajara; and nearly 200,000 arrobas, or 5,050,000 lbs. of this article, are annually made in the first of these cities. The abundance of soda on the high table land is highly favourable to this manufacture. Formerly there were fine manufactories of delft ware at Puebla, but they have declined much from the low price of the stoneware and porcelain of Europe, imported at Vera Cruz.

The manufacture of gunpowder is very extensive, the annual demand being more than 1,400,000 lbs. There are few countries in which a more considerable number of large pieces of wrought plate, vases, and churchornaments, are annually executed than at Mexico. The smallest towns have gold and silver smiths, in whose shops, all castes,-whites, Mestizoes, and Indians,—are employed. Services of plate, to the value of L.8,000 or L.10,000 sterling, have been executed at Mexico, which for elegance of form and admirable workmanship, may rival the finest work of the kind ever manufactured in the most civilized parts of Europe.

The interior commerce of Mexico is of comparative insignificance, chiefly from the unequal distribution of the population over such an immense surface, and the absence of good roads and navigable rivers. The foreign commerce may be divided into the following branches: namely, that with China, that with Peru,-and that with the West Indies and Spain. The former is conducted at the port of Acapulco,-the latter at Vera Cruz. The foreign commerce of Mexico employed 388 ships in 1824, viz.: