Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to avoid the repetition of the principal verb; as, "I have studied my lesson, but you have not ;" that is, "but you have not

studied it."

When several different verbs are in the same mood and tense, we sometimes avoid repeating the auxiliary that has been prefixed to the first verb; as, "I have seen and heard him frequently" that is, "I have seen and I have heard him frequently." But when any thing is emphatically expressed, or when opposition is denoted, the auxiliary verb must be repeated; as, "I have seen and I have heard him too."

Of the Adverb. "He spoke and acted prudently;" that is, "He spoke prudently, and he acted prudently."

Of the Preposition. "He was banished (from) the kingdom."

Of the Conjunction.

"'T is not enough (that) taste, judgment, learning, join;
In all you speak, let truth and candour shine."

Of the Interjection. The ellipsis of the interjection takes place, when the nouns refer to the same person or thing; as, " Oh! my brother, my friend!" But, when the nouns refer to different persons or things, the interjection must be repeated; as, "Oh liberty! Oh my country!"

Sometimes a whole phrase is omitted; as, "Solomon introduces different speakers into his book of Ecclesiastes, without distinctly naming them; as, the fool, the philosopher, the epicure, and the preacher, which (introduction of different speakers) accounts for the apparent dissonance of sentiments in that book."

The following phrases are also elliptical:

"Wo is me!" that is, "Wo is to me!" "To let blood;" that is, "To let out blood."

RULE 21.

All the parts of a sentence should correspond with each other, both in the strict observance of concord and government, in the arrangement and connection of the words and clauses, and in the uniform and dependent construction throughout; thus, "To double his kindness and caresses of me," is incorrect; it should be, "To double his kindness for, and his caresses of me."

For directions on the choice of appropriate words, the student is referred to Perspicuity, p. 148.

VIOLATIONS OF THE RULE.-"His accusations were strength against him;" here, the word accusations requires to be modified, and, consequently, an appropriate adjective must be employed, strength ought to be strong. The sentence, when corrected, will stand thus, "His accusations were strong against him."

"The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law;" to mitigate the teeth of the common law is evidently improper; the sentence should be, "The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it."

They presently grow into good humour, and good language towards the crown;" we may grow into good humour, but we cannot be said to grow into good language. The sentence should be, "They presently grow into good humour, and begin to use good language towards the crown."

"How much soever the reformation of this degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future times." The sentence should be thus constructed, "Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of," &c.

"Oh! shut not up my soul with sinners, nor my life with the blood-thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage introduced by the conjunction and, was not intended as a continuation of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the relative whose should have been used instead of the pronoun their; namely, "and whose right hand is full of gifts."

"We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is proper to say, "altering and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision;" but we cannot say, "retaining them into all the varieties." The sentence should be, "We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision;" or thus, "We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varieties of picture and vision."

"Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." In this sentence the same noun is considered both in the nominative and the objective cases. It would be

better constructed thus-" Eye hath not seen, nor hath ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man, to conceive the things," &c.

PART IV. PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION treats of the division of a discourse into sentences, clauses, and members, by means of points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require.

The principal stops are the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the period or full stop (.), the note of interrogation (?), the note of exclamation (!), and the dash (—).

The period properly denotes a complete round of sentences; the colon is a limb of a period; the semicolon a half limb; the comma a small part or clause cut off.

The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a pause longer than the comma; the colon longer than the semicolon; and the period longer than the colon.

The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the reader or speaker, much depending on the style of the writing and the manner in which it ought to be pronounced; the grave or solemn style requiring much longer pauses than the lively or passionate, in which a rapid enunciation is required.-Pauses are sometimes necessary in reading and speaking, where usage does not warrant the insertion of any point.

RULES FOR THE PROPER PUNCTUATION OF A COMPOSITION.

The Comma.

The comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, which, though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them.

RULE 1.-A simple sentence, when short, admits only a period at the end; as, "No state of life is exempt from trouble."

When a simple sentence is long, the subject and predicate consisting each of a number of words, a comma must be inserted before the verb; as, "A steady and undivided attention to one object, is a sure mark of a superior mind.”

RULE 2.-The simple members of a compound sentence are separated by commas; as, "When the graces of novelty are worn off, admiration is succeeded by indifference." "Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them,

and wise men use them." But when the members are closely connected, the comma is unnecessary; as, "Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness."

RULE 3.-Two words of the same part of speech, whether nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit a comma between them when connected by a conjunction expressed; as, "The earth and the moon are planets." "The man of order catches and arrests the hours as they fly." "Success generally depends on acting prudently and vigorously."

But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted between the words; as, "Reason, passion answer one great end." "He is a plain, honest man.'

An exception to this Rule occurs, when two or more adjectives do not express distinct qualities of the noun, but one adjective merely modifies the other; as, “A dark brown coat." "A light yellow-green tint."

A comma may also be inserted when the conjunction is expressed, if the parts connected are not short; as, "Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and the vigour of our minds."

RULE 4. a.-Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, with or without a conjunction, are separated by commas; and the last word, if a noun (but not if an adjective), must also be separated from the verb by a comma; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." "David was a brave, wise, and prudent prince."

1. In the former example, painting admits a comma after it; but prudent, being an adjective, does not.

2. The following is an additional example to illustrate the Rule. "To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble employments."

b. When words follow each other in pairs, there is a comma between each pair; as, Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war."

RULE 5.-The words used in a direct address, the case absolute, a short expression in the manner, either of a quotation or of a command, and the infinitive mood absolute, when it is not used as a nominative case, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, 66 My son, hear the counsels of thy father." "I remain, Sir,

66

"Plutarch calls

your obedient servant." "The time of youth being precious, we should devote it to improvement." lying, the vice of slaves." "I say unto all, Watch." "To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed future ease and reputation."

RULE 6.-When the latter of two nouns, placed in apposition, is accompanied by an adjunct, it must be separated from the former by a comma; as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge."

But if such nouns are single, or form only a proper name, a comma is not inserted between them; as, "Paul the apostle;""The emperor Antoninus."

By the term adjunct, is meant, any number of words added by way of modify ing or qualifying the principal words; thus, "Cicero, the eloquent Cicero, suffered an ignominious death;" here, the phrase, "the eloquent Cicero," is the adjunct of Cicero.

RULE 7. a.-Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other, are separated by commas; thus, “As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul after Thee."

"They are sometimes in union with, and sometimes in opposition to, the views of each other."

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.”

b. When only one word follows the last preposition, a comma must not be inserted before it; as, "He was much attached to, and concerned for John.”

c. When the members of comparative sentences are short, the comma is omitted; as, "How much better is wisdom than gold."

RULE 8.-All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at the beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated from it by commas; as, "With gratitude, I remember his goodness to me." "I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me." "His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous."

1. In the same manner, the words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, in fact, therefore, wherefore, however, besides, indeed, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must, when considered of importance, and, particularly, at the commencement of a sentence, be separated from the context by a comma; as, "Besides, our reputation does not depend on the caprice of man, but on our own good actions." If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer, there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit; so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper years may be contemptible, and old age miserable."