reach a thickness of more than 60 feet. Glacial sand is generally called bank sand but consists of alternate layers of sand and gravel. Next in abundance comes lake sand, which was formed by Lake Erie at its present and higher levels, where it makes up the different lake ridges and beaches. It is also obtained from the present lake bottom, from which it is drawn up into scows by means of pumps called "sand suckers." The lake sands are apparently more rounded and worn as well as better sorted by constant wave action than the glacial or river sands. River sands are found on the flood plains and deltas of the streams. A large part of the city of Cleveland, which covers more than 25 square miles, stands on an old delta of the Cuyahoga River. The material of this delta consists of about 20 to 30 feet of sand and gravel. Artificial sand and gravel are made in two ways. The Sharon conglomerate, which consists of nearly pure white or lightyellow quartz particles very loosely cemented together, is crushed and screened and makes a fine-appearing gravel for walks and drives. It is also used with good effect as a facing for concrete bridges and buildings, and another use is in the foundation work for brick pavements. Artificial sand and gravel is also obtained by screening crushed "Euclid bluestone." In order to compare natural sand with this artificial material for use in concrete, several tests for compressive strength were made for the Euclid Concrete Co. at the Case School of Applied Science on 4-inch cubes. The figures given below are the average from six samples of each variety of sand. The tests were made when the concrete was three months old. Crushing strength of concrete made from various sands at Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland These results show that "Euclid bluestone" screenings are superior to both bank and lake sand for making mortar and concrete. This is probably due to the more angular shape and the greater range in the size of the bluestone particles. PEAT Peat is partly decomposed vegetable matter and consists of remains of plants of all kinds that have either grown where the deposits are found or have been brought there. The plant accumulations are preserved from decay by being saturated with water, and hence peat usually occurs in undrained and swampy places. In the Cleveland district peat is found on the sites of many lagoons or ponds that were wholly or partly inclosed by bars and spits when Lake Erie was at the higher levels that formed the several lake ridges and beaches. When pure or when mixed with earthy matter peat forms a type of soil commonly called muck by farmers. There are about 11 places in the district where patches of muck are found, covering a total area of 768 acres. 22 In some of the local deposits the depth does not reach beyond the 3 feet that is customarily tested for soil and subsoil. That there is not very much mineral matter in some muck is shown by the fact that it burns readily when set on fire and is very difficult to extinguish. The muck areas of the district are situated as follows: 4 north and east of Berea, 1 of them somewhat large around Lake Abraham; 2 northeast of North Olmsted, 1 being rather large; 2 south of Middle Ridge, west of Dover; 1 southeast of Fields, on the Cuyahoga-Lorain county line; 1 southeast of Columbia Center, Lorain County; and 1 southeast of Northfield that is very large. One area that is rather exceptional covers about 4 to 5 acres immediately south of Fowles Road and the Berea station of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (Cleveland, Lorain & Wheeling line). The peat is about 30 feet thick, according to A. H. Hudson. In the deposit are two buried pine forests with many logs and cones, one at a depth of 3 feet and the other at a depth of 6 feet. Matted grass or sedge remains were found at a depth of 10 feet. There is no recollection or tradition among the oldest settlers of living pine trees in the region. The body of peat around Lake Abraham lies between Bagley Road and the road parallel to it a mile to the north. According to Dr. D. T. Gould, of Berea, 45 feet of peat was encountered while putting in the foundations of a bridge across the stream that drains the lake. In testing for a railroad right of way on the southwest side of the lake the peat was found to have a thickness of about 70 feet. In the peat tracts south of Bagley Road and on Taylor Road depths of 10 to 12 feet were reported. Although the only present use of peat in the region is as a muck soil for growing such crops as onions, celery, potatoes, and corn, there is some possibility that the larger deposits might be utilized in the manufacture of fuel, either as air-dried blocks, as machine-pressed briquets, or as charcoal or coke, or in powder for blast-burner firing. Peat is also dried and used somewhat extensively as a fertilizer, either alone or in mixture with other fertilizing substances. ROAD MATERIAL More than 90 per cent of the surface of the Cleveland district consists of clay loam and clay, which make a rather hard road when U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils, Soil map, Cleveland area, 1906 moderately dry but become dusty after prolonged drought and very sticky in wet weather. This defect has been remedied in some places by putting on sand. Gravel where accessible has been used as a top covering and makes the best dirt roads in the district. The gravel is either glacial or lake material, but in some localities, especially on drives and walks, crushed Sharon conglomerate has been used. Even where thus improved dirt roads generally do not make satisfactory travel for six months of the year, so that even in the country districts macadam, telford, and brick roads are replacing those made of dirt. Cuyahoga County first tried macadam, which was a failure, because the clayey soil carried on wheels of vehicles picked up the macadam surface. Bitulithic pavement, a mixture of tar and stone, was likewise tried but with little success, so that finally the county commissioners adopted vitrified paving brick laid on a concrete base. Paving block has proved to be very satisfactory and furthermore is procured near at hand from local shale-brick factories. In recent years new roads and some old roads as well are being paved with concrete. WATER RESOURCES In the Cleveland district the annual precipitation has averaged about 35 inches over a period of 40 years. The rainfall is supplemented by the large supply of water in Lake Erie, which is accessible to most of the population of the area. Streams and water power.-The streams of the district have been noted under the heading "Drainage" (pp. 18-21). The largest stream in the whole region is the Cuyahoga River, which for 20 miles runs across the Cleveland quadrangle, with a fall of about 4 feet to the mile. In the Berea quadrangle the largest stream is the Rocky River, formed by the union of the East Branch and West Branch at Olmsted. The East Branch has a fall of 16 feet to the mile and the West Branch about 11 feet to the mile. There has been very little development of water power in the district, because the fall of the larger streams is too small. In a few places on the smaller tributaries of the large streams dams have been built to supply mills with power. So far as is known the streams are not used as a source of water supply. Lakes. Aside from Lake Erie, which is the chief source of water for all uses in and around Cleveland, this glaciated region is remarkable for the absence of lakes. Public supplies.-The public water supply of Cleveland is taken from Lake Erie through tunnels. The water is filtered and chlorinated. East Cleveland, Lakewood, and a number of other communities are served with water from the Cleveland supply. The water is fairly uniform in composition from year to year and from season to The following table gives the average of analyses of monthly season. composite samples made in the Cleveland waterworks laboratory during the year 1921: Average of analyses of water from public supply of Cleveland 159 122 Total dissolved solids.. Total hardness as CaCO3 (calculated) --- Berea, which is the largest town in the district outside of Cleveland and its suburbs, pumps its water supply from some of the large quarries in the Berea sandstone that have been abandoned by the Cleveland Stone Co. Underground water.-Although most of the population of the district is supplied by Lake Erie, the inhabitants of the larger part of the territory, probably 400 square miles, are dependent on underground water. There are many alternations of sand and gravel with clay in the glacial drift that are capable of storing large amounts of water. The contact of the glacial drift with the underlying Bedford, Orangeville, and Meadville shales is also a source of water, especially where the drift is thick and consists largely of sand and gravel. Other formations are the Sharon conglomerate, the Berea sandstone, and the Euclid sandstone lentil, near the base of the Bedford shale. Even in the Cleveland, Chagrin, and underlying shales of Portage age there are many water-bearing sandstone strata. In the upper part of the Chagrin shale there are several sandy beds that are porous enough to contain water. The rocks in this area to a depth of more than 1,000 feet, however, are prevailingly shales, which contain little water. There is one deep-seated water-bearing stratum in the Silurian limestone known as the Big lime, just below the Newburg gas sand. It is called the Big Water, is reached at depths of about 2,400 to 2,600 feet, and has caused more or less trouble in drilling for gas. Another water-bearing layer is reached at a depth of about 1,400 feet. Most of the wells of the district are dug, but a few have been drilled. Most of the dug wells do not exceed 30 feet in depth. In places where the Berea sandstone approaches the surface the wells are sunk to this formation. A drilled well near Columbia Station, Lorain County, 78 feet deep, goes through 35 feet of drift and extends 43 feet into the Berea sandstone. At first it showed some oil, and it still contains perceptible amounts of hydrogen sulphide that has probably originated from gas and oil in the Berea itself or in the thick underlying shales. The water table in the area is generally near the surface. Springs.-There are many springs in the area, most of which are near the contact of the glacial gravel and sand with the Bedford, Cleveland, or Chagrin shales. Water is bottled and sold from Alba, Minnehaha, Rockport, Peerless, and Puritas Springs at Rockport and from Purity Spring near Luna Park, Cleveland. As the Berea sandstone, Euclid sandstone, and Cleveland and older Devonian shales contain considerable pyrite, many spring waters that issue from them contain appreciable amounts of iron sulphate, which gives a slightly astringent taste. As the iron is oxidized to limonite when such water reaches the surface, the springs have been called "iron" springs. Several springs of this type are situated on the Shaker Heights Boulevard, Cleveland. Several springs within the district contain hydrogen sulphide. One of these issues from a crack in the Berea sandstone on the south side of the viaduct over Tinkers Creek at Bedford. SOILS General character. The value of a soil for agriculture depends somewhat upon the climate but more upon its physical and chemical properties. The most valuable chemical constituents are silica, alumina, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, soda, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitric acid. If any of the more necessary of these are scanty, the deficiency may be remedied by the addition of fertilizers. The physical properties of soil include texture, structure, and of lesser note color and weight. By texture is meant the size of the constituent particles, which are classed from coarse to fine as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. The soils of the Euclid, Cleveland, and Berea quadrangles are the source of considerable wealth, although the underlying rocks of the region are prevailingly shales with some sandstone in the western part, and these rocks on weathering do not produce very fertile or desirable soils. By far the largest part of the soil of the area is transported glacial material derived from the late Wisconsin drift sheet. In places where the drift is not thick, the soil is composed in part of glacial material and in part of disintegrated shale, sandstone, or conglomerate. Most of the soils of glacial origin have been derived from till and have been modified into silty or clayey loams, which are cold, heavy, wet soils and cause late crops. The materials of this till were transported chiefly from Canada, but as the strike of the local shale and sandstone is nearly east or northeast they crop out in belts that run in these directions. Consequently some fragments from the more northerly strata find their way along with the drift into the belts lying on the south and produce an effect upon the |