INTRODUCTION.

In the early part of the twelfth century, when Europe was divided amongst the warlike nations which had overthrown the Roman empire, a number of small republics sprang up in Italy, as it were from its ruins; and in their political institutions, their domestic factions, and the language of their laws, each presented a miniature resemblance of the ancient mistress of the world.

From the invasion of Charlemagne until this period, the northern states of Italy had ever been considered as feudal appendages of the German empire. That wise conqueror, however, appears to have acted with his wonted moderation

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towards his Italian subjects, and satisfied with receiving their allegiance, left their institutions unimpaired. Otho the Great, in the tenth century, not only observed a like forbearance, but conferred important privileges on the towns of Lombardy; and partly from those favourable circumstances, partly from the spirit of commercial enterprise, which was developed in Italy during the Crusades, they gradually arose to a degree of opulence and power, which tempted alike the cupidity and the ambition of succeeding emperors. Frederick the First, better known by his surname of Barbarossa, who ascended the imperial throne about the middle. of the twelfth century, resolved to convert his nominal feudatories into real vassals, and their fertile territory into a province of his extensive empire.

The free towns of Lombardy were the main objects of his attack; and passing the Alps at the head of a large army, he speedily overran the country, received the homage of the people, and