to some other simple participle; as, being reading, being read, being completed.

The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb: those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are inserted in the list as being irregular or redundant.

The Third or Preperfect Participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when the compound is double, and having been to the perfect or the imperfect, when the compound is triple: as, having spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking.

OBS. 1.-Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote present time; some have supposed that the one denotes present, and the other, past time; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time; and some have supposed that both are of all times. In regard to the manner of their signification, some have supposed the one to be active and the other to be passive; some have supposed the participle in ing to be active or neuter, and the other active or passive; and some have supposed that either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more unanimity among grammarians, in respect to the compounds. Hence several different names have been loosely given to each of the participles; and sometimes with manifest impropriety; as when Buchanan, in his conjugations, calls being Active-and been, having been, and having had, Passive. The First participle has been called the Present, the Imperfect, the Active, the Present active, the Present passive, the Present neuter; the Second has been called the Perfect, the Past, the Passive, the Perfect active, the Perfect passive, the Perfect neuter; and the Third has been called the Compound, the Compound active, the Compound passive, the Compound perfect, the Pluperfect, the Preterperfect, the Preperfect. But the application of a name is of little consequence, so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the learner. Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, clear and brief. Upon the choice of his terms the writer has bestowed much reflection; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain all the reasons for preference.

OBS. 2. The participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing and ever incomplete; it is therefore rightly termed the IMPERFECT participle: whereas the participle in ed always has reference to the action as done and complete; and is by proper contradistinction called the PERFECT participle. It is hardly necessary to add, that the terms perfect and imperfect, as thus applied to the English participles, have no reference to time, or to those tenses of the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) named by these epithets. The terms present and past do denote time, and are in a kind of oblique contradistinction; but how well they apply to the participles may be seen by the following texts: "God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself.""We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God."-St. Paul.

OBS. 3.-The participle in ing has, by many, been called the Present participle. But it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time; otherwise such expressions as, 66 I had been writing," "-"I shall be writing," would be Bolecisms. It has also been called the active participle. But it is not always active, even when derived from an active verb: for such expressions as, "The goods are selling,"- "The ships are now building," are in use, and not without authority. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion; it is therefore properly denominated the IMPERFECT participle. If the term were applied with reference to time, it would be no more objectionable than the word present, and would be equally supported by the usage of

the Greek linguists. This name is approved by Murray,* and adopted by several of the more recent grammarians. See the works of Dr. Crombie, J. Grant, T. O. Churchill, R. Hiley, B. H. Smart, M. Harrison, W. G. Lewis, J. M. M' Culloch, E. Hazen, N. Butler, D. B. Tower, W. H. Wells, C. W. and J. C. Sanders.

OBS. 4.-The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, denotes a completion of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the PERFECT participle. But this completion may be spoken of as present, past, or future, for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. Tho perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the passive participle. It has a passive signification, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, "I have written a letter," and, "I have a letter written;"-the former being equivalent to Scripsi literas, and the latter to Sunt mihi literæ scriptæ.

OBS. 5.-The third participle has most generally been called the Compound or the Compound Perfect. The latter of these terms seems to be rather objectionable on account of its length; and against the former it may be urged that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first or imperfect participle is a compound: as, being writing, being seen. Dr. Adam calls having loved the perfect participle active, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the pluperfect of the subjunctive, "as, he having loved, quum amavisset; but it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to love, whether active or passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound. Many writers erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the participle in ed as always passive; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having loved, place the latter with the former, and call it passive also. But if this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is perhaps no better term for it than the epithet PREPERFECT,-a word which explains itself, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many other names, the most correct one is Pluperfect,-which is a term of very nearly the same meaning. Not because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb; as, "Having explained her views, it was necessary she should expatiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure." Jamieson's Rhet., p. 181. Here having explained is equivalent to when she had explained.

OBS. 6.-Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before nouns to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of participial adjectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives. 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state; as, A lying rogue, i. e., one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison; as,A more learned man. 3. When they are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb; as, unfeeling, unfelt. There is no verb to unfeel; therefore, no participle unfeeling or unfelt. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns; participles, after them.

OBS. 7.-Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are construed as nouns, and ought to have no regimen. A participle immedi

"The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state denoted by the verb; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended: as, I am writing a letter. The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished: 'I have written a letter. The letter is written."-Murray's Grammar, 8vo, p. 65. "The first [par ticiple] expresses a continuation; the others, a completion."-W. Allen's Gram 12mo, London, 1813, p. 62.

ately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into a noun, and therefore retains its regimen; as, "I thank you for helping him." Participles in this construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are sometimes called gerundives.

OBS. 8.-To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner should observe the following four things: 1. Nouns take articles and adjectives before them; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may govern the possessive case, but not the objective; participles may govern the objective case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects or objects of verbs; participles cannot. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things; participles refer actions to their agents or recipients.

OBS. 9.-To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form, observe the sense, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it; thus, loved for being loved, is a participle; but loved for did love, is a preterit verb.

ANALYSIS.

An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, modifying or completing the predicate of a sentence, and relating to the subject, is called an attribute; as, "Gold is yel low."-"The sun is shining."-"Honesty is the best policy."

OBS. 1.-All verbs except to be comprehend within themselves both the predicate and the attribute, into which they may generally be resolved. For example, in the sentence "The sun shines," the verb shines is equivalent to is shining, is being the affirmative or predicative word, and shining, the at

tribute.

OBS. 2.-The verb that connects the subject and the attribute, must be active-intransitive, passive, or neuter. It is sometimes called the copula, because it couples or unites the subject and the attribute.

OBS. 3.-The verb to be, in most cases, only affirms or indicates otherwise, the connection existing between the subject and the attribute. When the latter is a noun, it may express, 1. Class; as, "Cain was a murderer." "Cain was the murderer of Abel." 2. Identity; as, 3. Name; as, "The child was called John." When mere existence is predicated, the verb be comprehends both the predicate and the attribute.

OBS. 4.-Class, identity, name, or quality may be attributed to the subject in various ways:

1. By affirming directly a connection between it and the subject, as in the preceding examples.

2. By affirming it to belong to the subject, in connection with a particular act or state of being; as, "She looked a goddess, and she walked a queen." "The sun stood still."

8. By affirming a connection, as the result of a change; as, "He has become a scholar."

4. By affirming a connection, as the result of a process; as, "He was elected President."" The twig has grown a tree.

OBS. 5.-The attribute is often used indefinitely, that is, without reference o any particular subject; as, "To be good is to be happy." "To be a poet requires genius." In analyzing, this may be called the indefinite attribute. OBS. 6. An attribute is sometimes indirectly affirmed of, or otherwise connected with, the object of a verb; as, "They elected him president.""Vice has left him without friends" (i. e. friendless). This is to be considered as a modification of the predicate, and may be properly called the indirect attribute.

OBS. 7.-The conjunction as is often employed to express the connection of the attribute with the subject or object to which it refers; as, “She was known as Curiosity."—"They engaged her as a governess."

OBS. 8.-The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the same case as the subject to which it refers; as, "It is I, be not afraid.”—“ Who is she?"-"They believed it to be me."

In analyzing a sentence, the attribute should be considered one of the principal parts.

The principal parts of a sentence are, therefore, the SUBJECT, the PREDICATE, and the OBJECT or ATTRIBUTE, if there be either.

The other parts may be, 1. Primary or secondary adjuncts, 2. Words used to express relation or connection, 3. Independent words.

OBS.-Of the four principal parts of a sentence enumerated, the only two essential parts are the subject and the predicate; the other two being accidental or occasional, and used only to modify, limit, or complete the predicate. They, however, differ so widely from other adjuncts, and perform so important an office in every sentence in which they occur, that grammatical analysis is facilitated, and the exact nature of the sentence more clearly exhibited, by treating them as distinct, even though subordinate, elements of the sentence.

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

PRAXIS V.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to classify and analyze the sentence according to the preceding praxis; in addition, to point out the attributes and their adjuncts; and to parse the sentence as in the preceding praxes, distinguishing besides, the classes and modifications of the verbs. Thus :

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED.

"Can that be the man who deceived me?"

ANALYSIS. This is a complex interrogative sentence, consisting of the two simple clauses, Can that be the man? and Who' deceived me, connected by who.

The subject of the principal clause is that; the predicate is can be; and the attribute is man.

The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts; the adjuncts of the attribute are the, and the dependent clause.

The subject of the dependent clause is who; the predicate, deceived; and the object, me. Neither has any adjuncts.

PARSING.-Can is a verb auxiliary to the principal verb be, because it is added to the present infinitive to form the particular mood and tense in which the verb is found.

That is a pronominal adjective, representing man understood, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb can be, being used as a

noun.

Can be is a verb, from be, was, being, been; it is irregular, because it does not form its preterit and perfect participle by assuming d or ed; neuter, because it expresses simply being; it is found in the potential mood, because it expresses possibility; in the present tense, because it has reference to what now exists; it agrees with its subject that in the third person and singular number. (See Definition, page 71.) The is the definite article.

Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case, because it is an attribute relating to the subject that.

Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent word man, and connects the principal and the dependent clause of the sentence. It is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender; and is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb deceived. Deceived is a verb, from deceive, deceived, deceiving, deceived; it is regular, because it forms its preterit and perfect participle by assuming ; active-transitive, because it expresses action and has me for its object; it is found in the indicative mood, because it simply declares; in the imperfect tense, because it expresses time fully past; and it agrees with its subject who in the third person and singular number. Me is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of the first person; it is of the singular number, masculine gender; and in the objective case, because it is the object of the verb, deceived; it is declined, Nom. I, Poss. my, or mine, Obj. me.

LESSON I.

John has been very sick. William's brother, Henry, might have been a prosperous man. He has become a drunkard. Liberty is a great blessing. The leaves of roses are very fragrant. William rapidly became a good scholar. The project surely could not have been deemed a feasible one. The contract was pronounced fraudulent. Cool blows the summer breeze. He was born a lord. The princess was crowned queen. Washington could have been thrice elected president. The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. Art is long and time is fleeting. How wonderful is sleep! The soul of the diligent shall be made fat.

LESSON II.

The seed which was planted has become a large tree.
Whatever we do often, soon becomes easy to us.

They, who never were his favorites, did not expect so many kind attentions.

Columbus must indeed have been an extraordinary man.
The man who feels truly noble, will become so.

Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Indepen dence, was elected the third president.

Who was it that made that great outcry?

Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. He that loveth pleasure, will soon become a poor man. When the atmosphere is clear, the distant hills look blue.