The plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives from the nominative singular. Many of these pronouns, as well as a vast number of other words of frequent use in the language, were variously written by the old English and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the history of our language will meet with them under all the following forms, and perhaps more:

1. I, J, Y, y, ỳ, 1, ic, che, ich, 1c;-MY, mi, min, MINE, myne, myn, mỳn;— ME, mee, me, meh, mec, mech;-wE, wee, ve, pe;-OUR or OURS, oure, une, ure, urin, uren, urne, user, usser, usses, usse, ussum;-us, ous, vs, ur, uss, usic, usich, usig, usih.

2. THOU, thoue, thow, thowe, thu, du, þu;-THY, thi, thin, THINE, thyne, thyn, om, þin;-THEE, the, theh, thec, de be;-YE, yee, ze, zee, ze, ghe;— YOUR OF YOURS, youre, zour, your, goure, hure, eopen;-You, youe, yow, gou, zou, ou, m, uh, eop, iow, geow, eowih, eowic, iowih.

3. HE, hee, hie, hi, he, se;-HIS, hise, is, hys, hyse, ys, ys, hỳs, hýr;— HIM, hine, hen, hyne, hiene, hion, hym, hým, im, him; THEY, thay, thei, the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hii, hie, heo, hig, hyg, hỳ, hig, hi;-THEIR or THEIRS, ther, theyr, theyrs, thair, thare, hare, here, her, hir, hire, hira, hýna, deona, þeona, heora;-THEM, theym, thym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, em, hem, heom, hiom, hom, eom, him, hi, hig.

4. SHE, shee, sche, scho, sho, shoe, rcæ, reo, heo, hio, hiu;—HER, [possessive,] hur, hir, hire, hyr, hyre, hŷɲe, hýɲa, heɲa ;—HER, [objective,] hir, hire, hen, hyre, hi.

5. Ir, itt, hyt, hytt, yt, ye, hit, it, hic. According to Horne Tooke, this pronoun is from the perfect participle of hæcan, to name, and signifies the said; but Dr. Alexander Murray makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective, "he, heo, hita, this."-Hist. Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 315.

II. The relatives are derived from the same source, and have passed through similar changes, or varieties in orthography; as,

1. WHO, ho, wha, hwa, wua, hua, qua, quha, ha, hue;—WHOSE, who's, whos, quhois, quhais, quhase, hpær;-wнoм, whome, quhum, quhome, hwom, hpam, hwæm, hwæne, hwone.

2. WHICH, whiche, whyche, whilch, wych, quilch, quilk, quhilk, hwile, hpilc, hwyle, hwele, whilk, huilic, hvile.

3. WHAT, hwat, hwæt, hwet, quhat. This pronoun, whether relative or interrogative, is regarded by some as a neuter derivative from the masculine or feminine wha, who. It may have been thence derived, but, in modern English, it is not always of the neuter gender.

4. THAT, in Anglo-Saxon, is that, or þær. Horne Tooke supposes this word to have been originally the perfect participle of thean, to take. This derivation is doubtful.

From its various uses, the word that is called sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction; but, in respect to derivation, it is, doubtless, one and the same.-As an adjective, it was formerly applicable to a plural noun; as, "That holy ordres."-Dr. Martin.

SECTION V.-DERIVATION OF VERBS.

In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or from verbs. 1. Verbs are derived from Nouns in the following ways:

1. By adding ize, ise, en, or ate: as, author, authorize; critic, criticise; length, lengthen; origin, originate. The termination ize is of Greek origin; and ise, of French: the former should be generally preferred in forming English derivatives; but ise usually terminates such verbs as are essentially formed by means of prefixes; as, arise, disguise, advise, circumcise, despise, surmise, comprise, compromise, enterprise.

2. By changing a consonant, or by adding mute e: as, advice, advise; bath, bathe; breath, breathe.

II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives in the following ways:

1. By adding en, ate, or ize: as, deep, deepen; domestic, domesticate; civil,

civilize.

2. Many adjectives become verbs, without change of form: as, warm, to warm; dry, to dry; black, to black; forward, to forward.

III. Verbs are derived from Verbs in the following ways:

1. By prefixing dis or un, to reverse the meaning: as, please, displease; qualify, disqualify; fasten, unfasten; muzzle, unmuzzle.

2. By prefixing a, be, for, fore, mis, over, out, under, up, or with: as, rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle; bid, forbid; see, foresee; take, mistake; look, overlook; run, outrun; go, undergo; hold, uphold; draw, withdraw.

SECTION VI.-DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES.

All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the manner explained under the head of Etymology; and when foreign participles are introduced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to some other part of speech.

SECTION VII.-DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding ly, which is an abbreviation for like: as, candid, candidly; sordid, sordidly.

Most adverbs of manner are thus formed.

2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more English words; as, herein, thereby, to-day, always, already, elsewhere, sometimes, wherewithal. The formation and the meaning of these are in general sufficiently obvious. 3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix a; as, Abreast, abroad, across, afresh, away, ago, awry, astray,

4. Needs, as an adverb, (meaning necessarily,) is a contraction of need is; prithee, of I pray thee; alone, of all one; only, of one like; anon, of in oné [instant]; never, of ne ever; [not ever].

5. Very is from the French veray, or vrai, true. "Still," says Tooke, "is from the imperative of the Saxon rcellan, to put ;" and "Else is from the imperative of aleran, to dismiss." Rather is the comparative of the ancient rath, soon.

SECTION VIII.-DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS.

The English Conjunctions are mostly of Saxon origin. The best dictionaries of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in Saxon characters; but Horne Tooke, in his Diversions of Purley, a learned and curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage, traces these and many other English particles to Saxon verbs or participles. The following derivations, so far as they partake of such speculations, are offered principally on his authority :

:

1. ALTHOUGH, signifying admit, allow, is from all and though; the latter being the imperative of an ancient verb, meaning to allow.

2. AN, an obsolete conjunction, signifying if, or grant, is the imperative of the Saxon verb anan, to grant.

3. AND, denoting addition, is said by Tooke to come from an-ad, the imperative of anan-ad, to grant to, to add.

4. As, according to Dr. Johnson, is from the Teutonic als; but J. H. Tooke says that als itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es or as, meaning it, that, or which

5. BECAUSE, meaning by cause, is from be (Saxon for by) and cause.

6. BOTH, the two, is from the pronominal adjective both; which, according to Dr. Alex. Murray, is a contraction of the Visigothic bagoth, doubled. Anglo-Saxons wrote for it butu, butwu, buta, and batwa; i. e., ba, both, twa,

two.

The

7. BUT, implying addition, is supposed by Tooke to have come from "bot, the imperative of botan, to boot, to add."

8. BUT, denoting exception, is conjectured by the same author to have come from "be-utan, the imperative of beon-ucan, to be out."

9. EITHER, one of the two, is from the Saxon ægether, or egther.

10. EKE, signifying also or add, (now nearly obsolete) is from eac, the imperative of eacan, to add.

11. EXCEPT, which, as a conjunction, means unless, is the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) an ancient perfect participle, of the verb to except. 12. FOR, meaning because, is the Saxon Fon, or the Dutch voor, from a Gothic noun signifying cause or sake.

13. IF, meaning give, grant, allow, is from z1r, [gif,] the imperative of giran, to give.

14. LEST, meaning that not, dismissed, is from lered, the perfect participle of leran, to dismiss.

15. NEITHER, not either, is a union and contraction of ne either: our old writers frequently used ne for not.

16. NOR, not other, not else, is a union and contraction of ne or.

17. NOTWITHSTANDING, not hindering, is an English compound which needs no further explanation.

18. OR has been supposed a contraction of the Saxon oðen, other. Dr. Bosworth gives ooõe as its Saxon equivalent.

19. SAVE, [but, except,] anciently used as a conjunction, is the imperative of the verb to save, meaning to except.

20. SINCE [seeing or seen] is from riner, or ryne, the perfect participle of reon, to see. Seeing, too, is sometimes a copulative conjunction.

21. THAN, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the Saxon danne, which was used for the same purpose.

22. THAT [taken] is from dæt, the perfect participle of dean, to take. 23. THOUGH [allow] is from dariz, the imperative of darizan, to allow. 24. UNLESS [except, dismiss,] is from onler, the imperative of onleran, to dismiss.

25. WHETHER, which introduces the first term of an alternative, is the Saxon hpæden, which was used for the same purpose.

26. YET, [nevertheless,] is from get, the imperative of gecan, to get.

SECTION IX.-DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS.

The following is the derivation of most of the English Prepositions :— 1. ABOUT [at circuit] is from the French à, or the English prefix a, meaning at or to, and bout, meaning turn, or limit.

2. ABOVE [at-by-high] is from the Saxon, a, be, and ura, high.

3. ACROSS [at-cross] is from a and the noun cross.

4. AFTER [farther in the rear] is the comparitive of aft, now used only by

seamen.

5. AGAINST [opposed to] is from on-geond, gone at.

6. ALONG [at-long] is from a and long.

7. AMID [at mid or middle] is from a and mid.

8. AMIDST [at midst] is from a and midst, contracted from middest, the su perlative of mid.

9. AMONG [a-mixed] is abbreviated from amongst.

10. AMONGST [a-mixed] is from a and mongst, a Saxon participle signifying mixed.

11. AROUND [at circle] is from a and round, circle or sphere.

12. AT [joining] is supposed by some to come from the Latin ad; but Dr. Murray says, "We have in Teutonic ar for AGT, touching or touched, joined, at."-Hist. Lang., i, 849.

13. ATHWART [across] is from a and thwart, cross.

14. BEFORE [by-fore] is from the prefix be and the adjective fore. 15. BEHIND [by-hind] is from the prefix be and the adjective hind. 16. BELOW [by-low] is from the prefix be and the adjective low.

17. BENEATH [below] is from be and the adjective neath, low; whence the comparative nether, lower.

18. BESIDE [by-side] is from be and the noun side.

19. BESIDES [by-sides] is from be and the plural noun sides.

20. BETWEEN by-twain] is from be and twain, two.

21. BETWIXT [between] is from be and twyx, a Gothic word signifying two,

er twain.

22. BEYOND [by-gone] is from be and geond, the perfect participle of geondan, to pass, or go.

23. Br (formerly written bi and be) is the imperative of beon, to be. 24. CONCERNING is from the first participle of the verb to concern.

25. Down [low] is from the Anglo-Saxon adjective dun, low.

26. DURING [lasting] is from an old verb dure, to last, formerly in use; as, "While the world may dure."-Chaucer's Knight's Tale.

27. EXCEPT is from the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) the ancient perfect participle, of the verb to except.

28. EXCEPTING is from the first participle of the verb to except.

29. FOR [by cause of] is from a Gothic noun signifying cause or sake.

30. FROM is derived from the Saxon Ƒnum, or гnam, beginning.

31. IN is from the Latin in: the Greek is ev, and the French en.

32. INTO is a compound of in and to.

33. NOTWITHSTANDING [not hindering] is from the adverb not, and the participle withstanding.

34. Or is from the Saxon of, which H. Tooke supposes to be from a noun signifying offspring.

35. OFF (opposed to on) Dr. Johnson derives from the Dutch af.

36. ON is traced by etymologists to the Gothic ana, the German an, the Dutch aan: but such a derivation does not fix its meaning.

37. OUTOF (opposed to into) is from the adverb out and the preposition of -usually written separately, but better joined in some instances.

38. OVER [above] is from urena, higher.

39. OVERTHWART is a compound of over and thwart, cross.

40. PAST is a contraction from the perfect participle passed.

41. ROUND [about] is from the noun or adjective round.

42. SINCE [Seen], says Tooke, is from the perfect participle of reon, to see. 43. THROUGH (Contracted from thorough) is from a Saxon word meaning door or passage.

44. THROUGHOUT is a compound of through and out.

45. TILL [the end] is from the Saxon cil, [Saxon for till,] noting end of time. 46. To is a simple word from the Saxon to, which is supposed to come from a Gothic noun signifying end.

47. TOUCHING is from the first participle of the verb to touch.

48. TOWARD or TOWARDS is probably a compound of to and ward, from pandian, to look.

49. UNDER [on nether] is from the Dutch on neder, on lower.

50. UNDERNEATH is a compound from under and neath, low.

51. UNTIL is a compound from on or un and till, the end.

52. UNTO (now little used) is from on or un and to.

53. Up is from the Saxon up, which H. Tooke traces to ura, high.

54. UPON [high on] is from up and on.

55. WITH join] is probably from the imperative of píðan, to join. 56. WITHIN [by-in] is from with and in.

57. WITHOUT [by-out] is from with and out.

58. WORTH [of the value of ] is from the Saxon verb wyrthan or weorthan to be; and has, by pedigree, as good a claim to be a preposition as by and

*Beside should be used as a preposition, and besides only a an adverb. See rea sons for this distinction, in Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric.

with the old English writers used worth for be, in every part of the conju gation. According to J. H. Tooke, with, in the two compounds within and without, is from pyno, the imperative of pyndan, to be; and the meaning of the former is be in, and of the latter be out. Compare the derivations of BY, WITH, and WORTH; and see observations 6th and 7th, on Rule 22d, page

209.

SECTION X.-DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS.

Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as Interjections, do not require an explanation here; and those mere sounds which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or derivation. The interjection HEY is probably a corruption of the adjective high;-ALAS is from the French hélas-ALACK is probably a corruption of alas;-WELAWAY (which is now corrupted into welladay,) is from the Saxon palapa, wo on wo;-FIE, from Flan, to hate;-HEYDAY, from high day;— AVAUNT, from the French avant, before ;-Lo, from look;-BEGONE, from be and gone;-WELCOME, from well and come.

SECTION XI.-EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES.

In the formation of words, certain particles are often employed as prefixes; which, as they generally have some peculiar import, may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin; and the greater part of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek, or French prepositions. The roots to which they are prefixed, are not always proper English words. Those which are such, are called Separable Radicals; and those which are not such, Inseparable Radicals.

CLASS I.-ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES.

1. A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at, or to; as in a-board, a-shore, a-sleep, a-far, a-field. The French à, to, is probably the same particle; as in a-dieu. This prefix is sometimes redundant; as in a-wake, a-rise.

2. BE signifies upon, to, by, or for; as in be-spatter, be-times, be-tide, bespeak. It is sometimes redundant; as in be-gird, be-deck, be-loved.

3. COUNTER means against or opposite; as in counter-poise, counter-evidence,

counter-natural.

4. FOR, in composition, seems to signify from: it is found in the irregular verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-give, for-sake, for-swear; and in for-do, for-pass, for-pine, for-say, for-think, for-waste, which last are now seldom

used.

5. FORE, prefixed to verbs, signifies before; as in fore-know, fore-tell: prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies anterior; as in fore-side, forepart.

6. HALF, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in composition; and, often, merely to denote imperfection: as, half-sighted, seeing imperfectly.

7. Mis signifies wrong; as in mis-do, mis-place.

8. OUT, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess; as in out-do, out-leap: prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies exterior; as in out-side, out-parish.

9. OVER usually denotes superiority or excess; as in over-power, over-strain, over-large, over-dose, over-growth.

10. SELF signifies one's own person, or belonging to one's own person. It is much used in composition; as in self-love, self-abuse, self-affairs, self-willed, self-accusing. Sometimes self means very; as in self-same.

11. UN denotes negation or contrariety; as in un-kind, un-load.

12. UNDER denotes inferiority; as in under-value, under-clerk.

13. Up denotes motion upwards; as in up-lift: sometimes subversion; as in up-set.

14. WITH, as a prefix, (unlike the common preposition With,) signifies against, from, or back; as in with-stand, with-hold, with-draw.