conviction to those, who are qualified to judge of the facts on which his conclufion is founded:

"To fuch of my readers, as may be flow in "admitting the poffibility of this progreffive improvement in the human race, allow me to state "as an example, the hiftory of that science in which "the advances of discovery are the most certain, and "in which they may be measured with the greatest "precifion. Those elementary truths of geometry "and of aftronomy which, in India and Egypt, "formed an occult science, upon which an ambitious

priesthood founded its influence, were become, in "the times of Archimedes and Hipparchus, the sub"jects of common education in the public fchools of "Greece. In the last century, a few years of study "were fufficient for comprehending all that Archi"medes and Hipparchus knew; and, at prefent, "two years employed under an able teacher, carry "the ftudent beyond those conclufions, which limit"ed the inquiries of Leibnitz and of Newton. Let "any perfon reflect on these facts: let him follow "the immenfe chain which connects the inquiries of "Euler with those of a Prieft of Memphis; let him "obferve, at each epoch, how genius outftrips the "present age, and how it is overtaken by mediocrity "in the next; he will perceive, that nature has "furnished us with the means of abridging and fa "cilitating our intellectual labor, and that there is "no reafon for apprehending that fuch fimplifica. "tions can ever have an end. He will perceive, "that at the moment when a multitude of particu "lar folutions, and of infulated facts, begin to dis"tract the attention, and to overcharge the memo

ry, the former gradually lofe themfelves in one "general method, and the latter unite in one gen"eral law; and that thefe generalizations continually fucceeding one to another, like the fucceffivé

&6

multiplications of a number by itself, have no "other limit, than that infinity which the human "faculties are unable to comprehend.*

SECTION VII.

Continuation of the fame Subject.-Differences in the Intellectual Characters of Individuals, arifing from their different Habits of Abftraclion and Generalifation.

IN mentioning as one of the principal effects of civilisation, its tendency to familiarife the mind to general terms, and to general propofitions, I did not mean to fay, that this influence extends equally to all the claffes of men in fociety. On the contrary, it is evidently confined, in a great measure, to thofe who receive a liberal education; while the minds of the lower orders, like those of savages, are so habitually occupied about particular objects and particular events, that, although they are sometimes led, from imitation, to employ general expreffions, the ufe which they make of them is much more the refult of memory than judgment; and it is but feldom that they are able to comprehend fully, any procefs of reasoning in which they are involved.

It is hardly neceffary for me to remark, that this obfervation, with refpect to the incapacity of the vulgar for general fpeculations, (like all obfervations of a fimilar nature,) must be received with fome reftrictions. In fuch a state of fociety as that in which we live, there is hardly any individual to be found, to whom fome general terms, and fome general truths, are not perfectly familiar; and, therefore, the foregoing conclufions are to be confidered as defcriptive of thofe habits of thought alone, which are most

* See Note [M.]

1

prevalent in their mind. To abridge the labor of reafoning, and of memory, by directing the attention to general principles, inftead of particular truths, is the profeffed aim of all philofophy; and according as individuals have more or lefs of the philofophic fpirit, their habitual fpeculations (whatever the na ture of their purfuits may be) will relate to the former, or to the latter, of thefe objects.

There are, therefore, among the men who are accustomed to the exercife of their intellectual powers, two claffes, whofe habits of thought are remarkably diftinguished from each other; the one clafs comprehending what we commonly call men of business, or, more properly, men of detail; the other, men of abftraction; or, in other words, philofophers.

The advantages which, in certain refpects, the latter of thefe poffefs over the former, have been already pointed out; but it must not be fuppofed, that these advantages are always purchased without fome inconvenience. As the folidity of our general principles depends on the accuracy of the particular obfervations into which they are ultimately refolvable, fo their utility is to be eftimated by the practical applications of which they admit and it unfortunately happens, that the fame turn of mind which is favourable to philofophical pursuits, unless it be kept under proper regulation, is extremely apt to difqualify us for applying our knowledge to ufe, in the exercife of the arts, and in the conduct of affairs.

In order to perceive the truth of thefe remarks, it is almoft fufficient to recollect, that as claffification, and, of confequence, general reafoning, prefuppofe the exercise of abftraction; a natural difpofition to indulge in them, cannot fail to lead the mind to overlook the specific difference of things, in attending to their common qualities. To fucceed, however, in practice, a familiar and circumftantial acquaintance with the particular objects which fall under our ob fervation, is indifpenfably neceffary.

But, farther: As all general principles are founded on claffifications which imply the exercise of abftractions; it is neceffary to regard them, in their practical applications, merely as approximations to the truth; the defects of which, must be fupplied by habits acquired by personal experience. In confidering, for example, the theory of the mechanical powers; it is ufual to fimplify the objects of our conception, by abftracting from friction, and from the weight of the different parts of which they are compofed. Levers are confidered as mathematical lines, perfectly inflexible; and ropes, as mathematical lines, perfectly flexible; and by means of these, and fimilar abstractions, a fubject, which is in itself extremely complicated, is brought within the reach of elementary geometry. In the theory of politics, we find it neceffary to abftract from many of the peculiarities which diftinguish different forms of government from each other, and to reduce them to certain general claffes, according to their prevailing tendency. Although all the governments we have ever feen, have had more or lefs of mixture in their compofition, we reafon concerning pure monarchies, pure ariftocracies, and pure democracies, as if there really exifted political establishments correfponding to our definitions. Without fuch a claffification, it would be impoffible for us to fix our attention, amidst the multiplicity of particulars which the subject prefents to us, or to arrive at any general principles, which might ferve to guide our enquiries in comparing different inftitutions together.

It is for a fimilar reason, that the fpeculative farmer reduces the infinite variety of foils to a few general defcriptions; the phyfician, the infinite variety of bodily conftitutions to a few temperaments; and the moralift, the infinite variety of human characters to a few of the ruling principles of action.

Notwithstanding, however, the obvious advanta

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ges we derive from these claffifications, and the general conclufions to which they lead; it is evidently. impoffible, that principles, which derived their origin from efforts of abftraction, fhould apply literally to practice; or, indeed, that they fhould afford us any confiderable affiftance in conduct, without a certain degree of practical and experimental fkill. Hence it is, that the mere theorift fo frequently expofes himself, in real life, to the ridicule of men whom he defpifes; and in the geneal eftimation of the world, falls below the level of the common drudges in business and the arts. The walk, indeed, of thefe unenlightened practitioners, muft neceffarily be limited by their accidental opportunities of experience; but, fo far as they go, they operate with facility and fuccefs; while the merely fpeculative philofopher, although poffeffed of principles which enable him to approximate to the truth, in an infinite variety of untried cafes, and although he fees, with pity, the narrow views of the multitude, and the ludicrous pretenfions with which they frequently oppose their trifling fucceffes to his theoretical fpeculations, finds himself perfectly at a lofs, when he is called upon, by the fimpleft occurrences of ordinary life, to carry his principles into execution. Hence the origin of that maxim, "which" (as Mr. Hume remarks)" has been fo industriously propagated by "the dunces of every age, that a man of genius is unfit for bufinefs."

In what confifts practical or experimental skill, it is not eafy to explain completely; but, among other things, it obviously implies, a talent for minute and comprehenfive and rapid obfervation; a memory, at once retentive and ready; in order to prefent to us accurately, and without reflection, our theoretical knowledge; a prefence of mind, not to be difconcerted by unexpected occurrences; and, in fome. cafes, an uncommon degree of perfection in the ex