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rounding counties. The castle of Stirling holds a prominent place in the history of Scotland, and is connected with most of the important events that occurred in that kingdom before it was annexed to England. The royal palace is still standing in an apartment of which the earl of Douglas was mortally stabbed by James II.; and in another room the same James, as well as James V., was born. There is also a palace commenced by the latter and finished by his daughter Mary. The parliament house has been much defaced by being occupied by troops. Part of the royal chapel is used as an armory. There are several ancient churches and some modern ones within the town, beside numerous schools. The town house is very ancient, and the old residence of the earl of Mar is a very curious building. Stirling has some manufactures, the principal of which are woollens of different descriptions, leather, ropes, &c. The river is shallow, but a considerable trade is carried on. The Scottish central railway passes it, and 3 others have their termini at the town. The salmon fishery of the Forth is valuable. STIRLING, EARL OF. See ALEXANDER, WILLIAM.

STIRLING, WILLIAM, a Scottish author, born at Kenmure, near Glasgow, in 1818. He was graduated at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1839, and soon after turned his attention to the study of Spanish literature, history, and art, for which purpose he travelled and resided several years in Spain. In illustration of these subjects he has published "Annals of the Artists of Spain" (3 vols. 8vo., 1848), "The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles the Fifth" (1852), and a life of Velasquez, entitled "Velasquez and his Works" (12mo., 1855). In 1852 he was elected in the conservative interest a member of parliament for Perthshire, which constituency he still represents.

STIRLINGSHIRE, a central county of Scotland, bounded by the counties of Perth, Clackmannan, Linlithgow, Lanark, and Dumbarton; area, 462 sq. m.; pop. in 1861, 91,926. The principal towns are Stirling, Falkirk, Alva, Bannockburn, and Denny. The chief rivers are the Forth, Avon, Kelvin, Endrick, and Carron. Half of Loch Lomond belongs to Stirlingshire. Loch Coulter, Loch Elrigg, and some others are also in the county; and the W. end of Loch Katrine forms the N. E. boundary for a short distance. Ben Lomond, in the N. W. part of the county, rises to the height of 3,197 feet above the sea. Coal and iron are mined, and woollen and cotton goods are manufactured; the iron works situated at Carron are among the largest in the world.

STIVER, a Dutch copper coin, of the value of about two cents in the currency of the United States.

STOAT. See ERMINE. STOBÆUS, JOANNES, the compiler of a valuable collection of passages from Greek authors, probably born at Stobi in Macedonia, lived in the latter half. of the 5th century.

"Antholo

Stobæus called his whole work an gy," and divided it into 4 books; but it has come down in a somewhat different form and as two separate works. The original 1st and 2d books are now entitled "Physical and Ethical Extracts," and the remainder the "Anthology, thology," or by the Latin writers Sermones. These works, with extracts from many still extant ancient writers, contain passages from a large number of writers whose works are lost, and who are not otherwise known. A complete edition of both the "Extracts" and the Sermones was published by Tauchnitz (3 vols. 16mo., Leipsic, 1838).

STOCK EXCHANGE, the appellation originally given to the building in which stocks were bought and sold, but which has now come to signify transactions of all kinds in stocks. In England the term stocks is confined to the government stocks, annuities, &c., and the term shares is used for the capital or stock of railroad, banking, and other companies; but in the United States the obligations of the national debt, as well as of states, counties, and cities, and the shares of railroads, banks, mining, manufacturing, and insurance companies, are all called stocks. In France the word rentes has the same limitation as stocks in England. The amount of the public debt of Great Britain at the end of 1860 was £801,477,741, and the interest £26,833,469. The debt of France in 1860, of which the rentes are the evidences, was $1,714,000,000, and the interest on it $114,000,000. The dealing in the various stocks, bonds, and annuities is the business of the stock exchange, and the dealers in them are usually known as stock brokers and stock jobbers. In New York the traffic in stocks is of two kinds, the regular sales at the first and second boards, and the operations of the street. The first are, or are supposed to be, legitimate in their character, and the sales bona fide; the second are speculative in character, often illegal, and as often mere gambling or betting by parties without capital. The board of brokers in New York is composed of 200 regular members, who are men of reputed wealth, and who at their two daily sessions, either on their own account or on account of persons for whom they act, purchase or sell the various stocks which are called in order. Many of these sales and purchases are made for speculative purposes, but very seldom on account of brokers themselves. The delivery of stocks and the payment at full price is the almost invariable custom. It is only when a failure occurs that differences are fixed between members of the board. When a member of the board fails to deliver or pay for stocks as agreed, his name is struck from the list. He may be reinstated, however, upon effecting a settlement with his creditors. The efforts by one class of brokers to depreciate stocks, and by another to enhance their value, have led to the technical names of bears and bulls, and in the French bourse to the similar terms baissiers and haussiers. (See BEARS

AND BULLS.) The measures resorted to for the purpose of raising or depressing values are extraordinary and not always creditable.-The stock exchange has its own peculiar terms, not generally understood by outsiders. The phrase "buyer's option," added to the memorandum of a sale of stocks, implies that the purchaser, who buys at 30 or 60 days, can at his own choice call for the delivery of the stocks at any time within the period by giving one day's notice and paying interest at 6 per cent. up to the time he calls. Such purchases are usually made at a little above the cash price. "Seller's option," on the contrary, is a little below the cash price, and the seller has the right to deliver any day within the limited time, by giving one day's notice, receiving interest up to the time of delivery. A "corner" is an operation by several brokers, who form a clique to compel others to pay a heavy difference on the price of stock. Sometimes the clique purchase gradually a large amount of stock on time, buyer's option; they next sell nearly the same amount on time, seller's option, so as to secure an eventual market for their stock; then buy for cash, thus raising the price, and make a sudden call for the stock they have purchased on buyer's option, which, if they have calculated correctly, compels the parties from whom they have purchased to buy of them at a high price in order to deliver at a low one. The operation is attended with considerable hazard. A "lame duck" is a broker who is unable to respond with the shares or money when contracts mature. A "spread eagle" is the operation of a broker who sells a given quantity of stock on time, say 60 days, buyer's option, and buys the same quantity at a lower price, on the same time, seller's option. If both contracts run their full time, he makes his difference; but if the buyer or seller compel him to deliver before the time, he may be seriously embarrassed. The "street" or "the curbstone brokers," as the board call them, though often men of probity and honor, and transacting a very large amount of business, are not governed by as strict rules, nor as careful to abide by the letter of the law. Many of them are "lame ducks." They have a room adjoining that occupied by the board, and during its sessions in communication with it. Their operations are mostly speculative, and there are few of the tricks of the trade in which they are not skilled. Few of them possess any considerable capital, and if they are successful one day, they often lose the next.-In Paris, the bourse is conducted on a very similar plan. There are 60 agents de change, 60 courtiers de commerce, and 8 courtiers d'assurance, who together make up the parquet, answering to the board of brokers. The coulisse answers to our "street." The time transactions are usually "the end of the current month," or the end of the next month. The 4th of each month is settling day. There is a class of transactions called "free or premium sales," in which the purchaser has the right on the 15th or 30th of

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the month to annul his contract by the payment of a small fixed sum. If he adheres to his bargain, when called upon on these days, it is then called ferme, "fixed." The parquet is in session from 1 to 3 P. M. every day; the coulisse is in session then, as well as before and after. The transactions of the latter are as irregular as those of our curbstone brokers," and its premiums for annulling a sale are less than those of the parquet. The stock exchange at London has very similar rules, and its street operators are similar in character.-The excitement at the hour of "high 'change," in London, Paris, or New York, is often such as beggars description; several hundred men are shouting, calling out what they have to sell or what they wish to buy, at the top of their voices, all together, and leaping and gesticulating, almost as if insane; in speculative periods, immense sums are made or lost in a few minutes. Nathan Mayer Rothschild, the day after the battle of Waterloo, made, it is said, over £1,000,000 sterling in the purchase of stocks.

STOCK FISH. See COD.
STOCK JOBBING.

See STOCK EXCHANGE. STOCKBRIDGE, a township of Berkshire co., Mass., on the Housatonic river and railroad, 168 m. by railroad from Boston, and 17 m. from Pittsfield; pop. in 1860, 2,000. The surface of the township is varied; in the S. is Monument mountain, separating it from Great Barrington, in the W. West Stockbridge mountain, in the S. E. the Beartown mountains, and in the N. W. Rattlesnake mountain. Between these are valleys of great beauty. The Housatonic and its affluents drain the town. The Stockbridge or Housatonic Indians, among whom John Sergeant and Jonathan Edwards labored as missionaries, formerly had their home here, but removed westward in 1788. There are two manufacturing villages in the township, Glendale and Curtisville, where woollen goods to the amount of $200,000 annually are made, as well as some castings, hollow ware, &c. The village of Stockbridge has a bank, an insurance office, an incorporated academy, several private schools, and 3 churches (Congregational, Episcopal, and Roman Catholic).

STOCKHARDT, JULIUS ADOLPH, a German writer and lecturer upon chemistry and agriculture, born at Röhrsdorf, near Meissen, Saxony, Jan. 4, 1809. After receiving a classical education he studied practical pharmacy and the natural sciences for several years, and in 1833 was graduated by the board of government examiners at Berlin as an apothecary of the first class. In 1834 he travelled in Belgium, England, and France, and on his return entered as assistant the laboratory of Dr. Struve's pharmaceutical establishment in Dresden. In 1838, having received the degree of Ph.D. from the university of Leipsic, he became teacher of natural science in Blockmann's institute in Dresden, and in the following year teacher of chemistry, physics, and mineralogy in the

technological school at Chemnitz, and royal inspector of apothecaries. His rare talent for presenting, both in the recitation and lecture room, scientific knowledge upon subjects which are usually exceedingly obscure to the community at large, was soon recognized both by the students and the citizens, and the remarkable power of critical observation displayed in his writings (Untersuchung der Zwickauer Steinkohle, 1840; Ueber Erkennung und Anwendung der Giftfarbe, 1844, &c.) was the occasion of almost innumerable applications for the investigation of commercial problems, and demands for his opinion upon scientific legal questions. In 1843 he travelled in Belgium and France to perfect himself in technological science, and in 1846 published his Schule der Chemie. In Germany new editions of this work have been published almost every year since its origin; and it has been translated into at least 8 different languages. It was translated into English by C. H. Peirce, M.D., under the title of "The Principles of Chemistry illustrated by Simple Experiments" (Cambridge, Mass., 1850). In 1844 Stöckhardt began a course of popular agricultural lectures before the Chemnitz agricultural society. The interest excited by these lectures led to the establishment of the system of agricultural experimental stations (Landwirthschaftliche Versuchs-Stationen), the importance of the influence exerted by which, throughout Germany, in diffusing scientific knowledge, and in bringing it to bear immediately upon the affairs of practical life, can hardly be overrated. From 1846 to 1849 Stöckhardt edited (with Dr. Hulse) the Polytechnisches Centralblatt, and from 1850 to 1855 (with Schober) the Zeitschrift für Deutsche Landwirthe. In 1848 he was appointed professor of agricultural chemistry in the royal academy at Tharand, a new chair having been founded purposely for him; and he still holds that position (1862). Since then, extending his idea of popular agricultural instruction, he has given, chiefly at his own expense, plain conversational lectures (Feldpredigten) in the various farmers' clubs and societies of Saxony and other parts of Germany, explaining the improvements in agriculture which chemical science has shown to be desirable, and illustrating these with experiments whenever this could be done. Several of the more important portions of these lectures have been published in a popular form by their author, as his Guanobüchlein (1851; 4th ed., 1856), and Chemische Feldpredigten (1851; 4th ed., 1857), both of which have been translated into several foreign languages; and of the latter several English editions exist, as "Chemical Field Lectures for Agriculturists," translated by J. E. Teschemacher (Cambridge, Mass., 1853), and Agricultural Chemistry, or Chemical Field Lectures" (London, 1855). In 1855 he established at Leipsic a popular journal, Der chemische Ackersmann, in which his so called field sermons have since been published; and he

has also contributed to various kindred publications. cations. In 1851 he travelled through the farming districts of England, Scotland, France, and Belgium, and in 1856 through Holland and Belgium. It is said that, principally through his efforts, two bushels of grain are now harvested in Saxony where formerly but one grew. STOCKHOLM, the capital and largest city of Sweden, in lat. 59° 20′ 31′′ N., long. 17° 54′ E., 330 m. N. E. from Copenhagen, and 440 m. W. S. W. from St. Petersburg; pop. in 1861, 116,972. It is beautifully situated at the junction of Lake Mælar with an arm of the Baltic called the Skængard, the latter being more properly an archipelago indented as it were into the land. The city is built chiefly upon a number of islands, and consists of three principal divisions: the Stad, or original city, the Norrmalm (northern suburb), and Södermalm (southern suburb). It is handsomely designed and built, with several squares and public walks ornamented with trees and statues. The surrounding country, and much of the ground upon which the city stands, are rocky and solid; yet it has been necessary, from the nature of other parts, to build much upon piles, whence the name is derived, meaning island of piles. The city has been likened to Venice, and there are several points of view which recall the southern city of the sea; but the resemblance is imperfect. The approaches by water are uncommonly beautiful, both on the lake side and from the Baltic, commanding views probably unsurpassed of their kind. The most striking object from every point is the great rectangular palace, an immense structure, standing upon an eminence in the central island. vast and massive walls rise far above all the neighboring buildings, and its long straight lines need the relief afforded by the towers of the neighboring cathedral church. The palace, of Italian architecture, is a regular quadrangle, flanked upon the E. and W. sides by handsome parallel wings. There are few cities in Europe whose general aspect is more attractive than that of Stockholm. There are vast ranges of buildings, relieved and overshadowed in the Stad by the majestic palace and church towers rising from their midst, in the Norrmalm laid out with modern symmetry and elegance, and in the Södermalm rising from the harbor terraced upon a noble amphitheatre of rocky cliff, and all or nearly all reflected in the clear waves of lake and fiord. From the corner of almost every street debouching upon the wide water fronts, the eye encounters the richest and most remarkable pictures. Nowhere has nature disposed her undulations of soil and curves of water boundary with more endless variety; and nowhere does she produce effects and perspective of more striking beauty. In the compass of a single evening walk one may pass through sombre forest and smooth pasture slopes, climb tall granite cliffs overhanging glassy lake and bay, and glide through the busy seaport filled with sails and moving industry,

Its

gun boats, is stationed at an island opposite the palace, called Skeppsholm (ship island). The city, covered by a strong fortress in the neighborhood (Waxholm), is perhaps impregnable by water. By land it is quite without defensive works.-Stockholm is the chief seat of Swedish manufactures, which are here extensive, and include woollen, linen, cotton, and silk fabrics, iron ware, leather, earthenware, tobacco, refined sugar, soap, &c. Iron is the principal article of export, amounting in 1857 to 49,461 tons, in 1858 to 34,984, and in 1859 to 45,162. The other chief exports are tar, planks and boards, and copper. The imports consist principally of cotton and cotton yarn, coffee, grain, rice, hides, tobacco, wool, sugar, salt, coal, breadstuffs, and spirits. The imports of coffee in 1856 amounted to 6,087,741 lbs., of tobacco to 2,076,870 lbs., of sugar to 11,553,425 lbs., and of hides to 1,970,588 lbs. In the same year 217,026 barrels of breadstuffs were imported, and 135,817 barrels exported. The total imports in 1856 amounted to about $9,000,000, and the exports to $3,000,000. The following is compiled from the official Swedish reports of tonnage owned in Stockholm :

the granite quays lined and adorned with archi-
tectural beauty, with statues and monuments
of art. The various subdivisions of the city, in-
tersected by the waters of the lake and by the
sinuosities of the sea, are chiefly islands con-
nected by bridges, some of which are of superb
granite masonry. Picturesque ferry boats, pro-
pelled by Dalecarlian women in their showy
provincial costume, add greatly to the original-
ity of the scene in summer. In winter the
waters are compact plains of snow-clad ice,
covered with all the moving activity of thor-
oughfares.—The whole city is contained within
a circumference of about 16 miles; but the
great park, about 2 miles in circumference and
occupying an entire island nearly opposite the
Stad, is not comprised within this area. It is
probably the most beautiful public resort in the
world. There are over 25 churches; and one of
the most interesting objects in the town is the
Riddarholm church, containing the tombs and
trophies of many heroic personages, and among
them those of Gustavus Adolphus, Charles XII.,
and Charles XIV. (Bernadotte). The houses of
the city, about 5,500 in number, are large and
convenient, usually 4 stories high, and occupied
by families living independently in flats or
étages; they are generally of brick stuccoed, and
colored usually of uniform buff or yellow. Their
aspect is cheerful and agreeable, but undistin-
guished by architectural elegance. In the prin- 1850.
cipal streets, especially in the Norrmalm, there
are a few elegant shops; but this species of
luxury is still almost in its infancy in Stock-
holm. In the Norrmalm, the fashionable quar-
ter, are the residences of the wealthy classes
and of the nobility. Here the streets are wider
and straighter than in most European capitals
of the second class. It is so also in the Söder-
malm, which is the site of the principal facto-
ries. In the Stad, on the contrary, the com-
mercial quarter, the streets, with 2 or 3 excep-
tions, are crooked, narrow, and dark. The city
generally is sheltered from high winds. The
air is pure and healthy, and the climate in all
respects preferable to that of St. Petersburg.
The mean annual temperature of Stockholm is
42° F., and the mean temperature of 6 winter
months has been observed at 29.4° F. The
harbor is one of the finest in the world, and the
largest sized ships may penetrate into the very
heart of the city.—As the seat of government
and residence of the king, Stockholm is the
central point of Swedish public affairs, of di-
plomacy, of several academies of belles-lettres,
science, and the arts, of elegant society, and
of a great number of institutions useful and
charitable. There are several fine theatres and
other public places of amusement. The city
government is confided to a governor, lieuten-
ant-governor, and a municipal corps composed
of 3 burgomasters and 19 councillors. A strong
military garrison of lifeguards is always quar-
tered in the handsome barracks built by Charles
XIV.; and there is also a burgher guard al-
ways on duty. A naval squadron, chiefly of

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-The foundation of the town of Stockholm has been ascribed to Birger Jarl, the father and guardian of Waldemar, elected king in 1250. A settlement had been in existence at the spot, however, since the destruction of Sigtuna by Finnish pirates in 1187. At this epoch the island upon which the modern palace stands was originally fortified with walls and towers of wood, and the pirates were kept in check by works which thus defended 7 towns which stood on the banks of the lake. The strength of its fortifications subsequently exposed the city to repeated sieges. It became the residence of the Swedish monarchs soon after Birger's death, but Upsal continued long afterward to be the seat of government. With Lübeck and Hamburg reciprocity of free trade was established; and similar relations with Riga soon followed. Birger also sought to form commercial relations with England. On two memorable occasions Stockholm was defended by women-"Shakespearian women, as a Swedish historian aptly terms them. In 1501 the citadel was held against insurgents by Christina, queen of Denmark, whose husband, King John, ruled over the 3 united kingdoms of Scandinavia. King John had left his queen in command of a garrison of 1,000 men, whose number, after a siege of 5 successive months, was reduced by famine and the sword to 80. She was compelled to capitulate. A still more heroic defence was that originated and conducted by Christina Gyllenstierna, the widow

of the fallen regent Sten Sture. The besiegers were Danes, under Christian II. After a terrible siege of 4 months, the place was surrendered with the most solemn guaranty of the king to respect the rights of the inhabitants. A most fearful massacre ensued, known as the "blood bath of Stockholm."

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STOCKING, a covering of some textile fabric closely fitted to the foot and leg. The word is said to be derived from the Saxon stican (past participle, stocken), to stick, because the material was stuck, or made with sticking pins, now called knitting needles. In, the 15th century the whole dress below the waist was made in one in England, and was called hose. In the next century, possibly somewhat earlier, it appears to have been first divided into breeches and stockings, which last also retained the original name. Stockings are said to have been made first of cloth in England; and such, Howell states, in his "History of the World," Henry VIII. ordinarily wore, except there caine from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockins. K. Edward, his son, was presented with a pair of long Spanish silk stockins by Thomas Gresham, his merchant, and the present was taken much notice of. Queen Elizabeth was presented by Mrs. Montague, her silk woman, with a pair of black knit silk stockins, and thenceforth she never wore cloth any more." On the continent stockings were made much earlier than in England; and in 1527 there existed in France, as stated by Beckmann, a stocking knitters' guild. Nothing is known of the origin of knitting, or with certainty when it was introduced into England. It was practised there in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and stockings were knit of worsted as well as of silk. A machine called the stocking frame for weaving them was invented in 1589 by William Lee, a student expelled from St. John's college, Cambridge, for marrying against the rules of the college, and who was thus rendered dependent upon the labor of his wife in knitting stockings. Failing of encouragement at home, he took the machine to France. After his death there his workmen brought back the invention to England, and introduced the manufacture in London and its vicinity. It was afterward established in Nottinghamshire, which has ever since been famous for its production of stockings. When Sir Richard Arkwright introduced cotton spinning at Nottingham, the first product, made of two roves instead of one, and called double spun twist, was found from its evenness so well adapted for the stocking manufacture, that it was all devoted to this purpose; hand-spun cotton was entirely laid aside, and stockings made of twist soon supplanted those of thread. It was on Lee's stocking frame that the first machine-made lace was produced in the last century, and it formed the basis of those now used in this manufacture. In 1756 an improvement was added in Derby to the machine, fitting it for making ribbed stockings like those produced by knitting, and

these are still known as the "Derby ribs." The old frame, however, still continued a clumsy and complicated machine, workable only by hand; and all attempts to adapt it to power, though many were made at great cost, were abandoned in England as hopeless, until this had been successfully accomplished in the United States, as will be noticed below. The stocking manufacture is now carried on to a vast extent in the counties of Nottingham, Leicester, and Derby, England, and to a less degree in some towns in Scotland. Hawick, in Roxburghshire, produces annually between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 pairs. The business has been greatly improved since 1844, and an immense change has of late taken place in the cheapness of the goods, so that they are introduced where stockings were before unknown. With the old hand frames a workman made in a week about a dozen cotton hose, weighing 2 lbs. The same labor now applied to a set of the power rotary round frames easily produces in the same time 200 dozen, consuming 300 lbs. of cotton, which sell at 28. 6d. per dozen. The total number of stocking frames in Great Britain is estimated at about 50,000, of which at least 17,250, worth £310,000, are in Nottinghamshire, giving employment to about 40,000 persons in the various operations of making, stitching, sewing, finishing, &c. Those in Leicestershire give employment to about 35,000 persons. The materials used are woollen yarns, lamb's wool, cotton, silk, and mixed cotton and wool or an gola.-Stocking frames were introduced into the United States in the 18th century at several places where the cotton manufacture was prosecuted. German emigrants established the knitting business at Philadelphia and Germantown, Penn., and English emigrants from Nottinghamshire introduced it into New York city and several places in the middle and eastern states. The adaptation of the old Lee machine to power was first accomplished by the ingenuity of Timothy Bailey in Albany in 1831; and the first machine thus run was at Cohoes, N. Y., in Oct. 1832. At this place the manufacture of hosiery has since become a very important branch of industry, but with machines of much more perfect construction. The old Lee invention was a square frame, which produced a straight strip or flat web, which was cut off in proper lengths, and seamed together to form the stocking. But a great improvement upon this, the origin of which is unknown, was the circular loom in which a continuous circular web is knit of any length, and which is cut up and formed by dif ferent methods into the shape of a stocking. It is believed that the first of these introduced into America was brought from Belgium into Connecticut by a German, about the year 1835. Several others of different construction have since been devised in the United States for manufacturing purposes, and a few intended also for family use. The various knitting machines, which are too numerous to be men

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