by Brischar (vols. xlvii. et seq., Mentz, 1849 et seq.). An index to vols. i. to xv. was prepared by Moritz (1825), and to vols. xvi. to xxiii. by Sausen (1834). He also published lives of Alfred the Great (1815) and St. Vincent de Paul (1818). His writings form the larger part of the Werke der Brüder Stolberg (22 vols., Hamburg, 1821-'6).—CHRISTIAN, Count, a German author, brother of the preceding, born in Hamburg, Oct. 15, 1748, died near Eckernförde, Jan. 18, 1821. He studied at Göttingen (1769-74), where he was a member of the Dichterbund, and wrote poems, translations, and plays.

STOMACH, the hollow organ in which the function of digestion is performed, as uniformly present, in variously modified forms, in every perfectly developed animal, as it is absent in the vegetable kingdom. From the simplest form in the polyp to the complex structure in the ruminant, this organ is described under the appropriate titles, and particularly under COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. As a general rule, throughout the vertebrate animals we find a complex stomach associated with a vegetable diet; but this has striking exceptions, as for instance in the dolphin, which has a multiple stomach with an animal diet, and the horse, which has a simple stomach with the same vegetable food as the ox. In man the stomach is the widest and most dilatable part of the alimentary canal; it is situated in the upper part of the abdomen, in the epigastric and part of the left hypochondriac region, below the diaphragm, above the arch of the colon and transverse mesocolon, and to a certain extent between the liver and spleen; it comes in contact in front with the anterior wall of the abdomen, and behind with the organs and vessels lying upon the spine. Its shape varies greatly, but when moderately distended, in or out of the body, resembles a bent cone, curved from before backward and from above downward, following its length; it lies almost transverse, a little obliquely downward, forward, and to the right; the anterior border is the greater curvature, and is lodged between the folds of the great omentum; the œsophagus enters at about of the length from the left extremity; the great cul-de-sac on the left is united to the spleen by short vessels. It is about 14 inches long, and 5 wide at the central part, tapering gradually to the pylorus on the right; its normal capacity is about 175 cubic inches or 5 pints, and its weight 6 to 7 ounces. Though naturally kept in place by the omental folds of the peritoneum, any unusual distention may displace it, chiefly in a downward direction; the habit of tight lacing sometimes gives to the stomach a permanent hour-glass shape, variously thrusting its openings from their natural positions, and greatly embarrassing digestion. The oesophagus or gullet, after passing through the diaphragm, opens into the stomach at the cardiac orifice on the left, and the digestive cavity is separated from the intestinal

The

canal by an external constriction and an internal valve at the pyloric opening on the right. Its walls consist of 3 coats, an external or serous, middle or muscular, and internal or mucous; the 1st keeps the organ in place, limiting its movements, the 2d enables it to execute the peristaltic movements so necessary to digestion, and the 3d secretes by its glands the gastric and other juices concerned in the preparation of chyme; some anatomists count a 4th or fibrous layer between the muscular and the mucous. Between the coats are layers of areolar tissue, containing the vessels, nerves, and lymphatics; the muscles are of unstriped or organic fibre, arranged in longitudinal, circular, and oblique layers. The mucous membrane is delicate, smooth and velvety in some parts, more or less rugose in others, reddish white, covered with a mucous secretion, and rapidly undergoes disorganization; beside the usual glands noticed under INTESTINE, it also contains special gastric cells, whose secretion has been described under DIGESTION. blood vessels are very large and numerous, the arteries coming from the cœliac axis of the abdominal aorta, and the veins emptying into the vena portæ ; they freely inosculate in their branches, and are tortuous in their course and loose in their connections to accommodate the distentions of the organ. The nerves are derived from the pneumogastric, and from the solar plexus of the sympathetic system. On the introduction of food into the stomach the organ is excited to movements, the mucous membrane becomes darker and begins to pour out the gastric fluid; the food enters from the oesophagus in successive waves, and is at once subjected to the peristaltic movements which thoroughly mix the gastric juice with its mass; the act of respiration assists in the stomachal movements. The usual course of the food is first to the left of the cardiac orifice, thence along the larger curvature from left to right toward the pylorus, thence returning along the upper or lesser curvature from right to left, to go again through the same course; the revolution takes place in from 1 to 3 minutes, according to the stage of digestion; it is due probably in great measure to the action of the circular muscular fibres. The pylorus is closed during early digestion, gradually relaxing as the process goes on, allowing an almost constant passage of chyme into the duodenum; sometimes the contents pass in the reversed direction, as in vomiting, in which the cardiac orifice is relaxed, the pylorus comparatively closed, and the organ compressed by the abdominal muscles, assisted perhaps by its own contractions. The mucous membrane may be the seat of softening, congestion, hæmorrhage, acute and chronic inflammation, ulceration, and cancerous growths.

STOMACH PUMP. See SYRINGE.

STONE, a general term including all solid mineral substances. The subject is treated mineralogically in the article MINERALOGY, and

economically under the various names of useful minerals and rocks, as DOLOMITE, GRANITE, MARBLE, PORPHYRY, SANDSTONE, and SLATE. In the present article the adaptation and uses of stone for different structures of importance will be considered. In the remotest periods durable stones were esteemed the most valuable materials for architectural purposes, and more judgment was shown in their selection, and more labor expended in their elaboration, than are exercised at the present day. It may even be said that greater skill was possessed by the architects of the most ancient monuments in carving and polishing the hardest stones than has ever since been exhibited. The ancient Egyptians, using no harder tools, that we are aware of, than those of bronze, quarried and dressed huge blocks of granite, and covered them with the most delicate and sharp-cut hieroglyphics, leaving the whole surface highly polished. Their wonderful structures are referred to more particularly in the article PYRAMID; and the use of different stones by other nations of antiquity is incidentally treated in the article ARCHITECTURE. It is remarkable that the ancients, with their imperfect machinery, possessed the power of quarrying and moving masses of stone as large as any moved in modern times. Structures were even hollowed out of single blocks, and transported long distances. Such was that described by Herodotus, which Amasis transported from the isle of Elephantiné to Sais, a distance of 20 days' ordinary sailing. It measured outside 27.72 by 18.48 feet, and was 10.56 feet high; within, 24.86 by 15.84, and 6.6 feet high; thus containing 2,822 cubic feet, which probably weighed 458,744 lbs. Another structure of similar character, also described by Herodotus as forming part of the temple of Latona at Buto, is estimated to have weighed 9,944,750 lbs. This enormous mass, it is supposed, was quarried upon the spot where it was placed, as no mention is made of its transportation, and as its movement would seem to be utterly impracticable; but it was covered with a block, which must have been moved and raised above its walls, described as 52.8 feet square and 5.28 feet thick, making 14,720 cubic feet, and a probable weight of 1,984,550 lbs. The largest mass of stone that has been transported in modern times is the pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg, which weighs 3,234,000 lbs. It was found impossible in moving it to make use of rollers of wood or iron, and even balls of wrought and cast iron were crushed down under the immense weight; and the last resort was to balls made of an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc. From the drawings preserved of the operations of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians, it appears that the heavy stones which they employed were drawn by main strength of men, arranged in order along several strong ropes, upon causeways and inclined planes of cut stones specially constructed. Some were placed upon massive

32

30

4

sledges, and drawn upon wooden ways, which were lubricated with some liquid substance, and some were moved by rolling them over. It has been estimated that a force equal to a little over of the weight of a stone is necessary to draw it, when rough, upon a firm and smooth horizontal bottom; of its weight upon a surface of wood, or if upon a wooden support moved upon wood, and if the two surfaces are soaped only. The use of rollers upon ground not compressible reduces the required force to about of the weight, to if they roll upon wood, and to about if they roll between two smooth wooden surfaces. Allowing that a man can haul 14 times his own weight, there would be required to move the stone cover of the temple at Buto, upon smooth ground, 10,000 men; upon a surface of wood, 9,000; with the stone upon a wooden platform and drawn upon wood, 8,333 men; and if the surfaces were soaped, 2,500 men. In raising it upon an inclined plane to place it upon the walls, the increase of force required is in the ratio of its inclination.-The comparative durability of building stones is a matter of the first importance, and received especial attention in England on the occasion of selecting the best variety attainable for the houses of parliament. The effects of the weather upon some of the buildings in that country are noticed in the article SANDSTONE. In the United States the disintegration of building stones is exemplified in a remarkable degree in the old capitol at Washington. In a report of the secretary of the interior to congress in 1849, it is stated that some of the stones near the base of the building were so deeply affected, that it was necessary to remove them. The stone readily absorbs the moisture that condenses upon it, and the natural cement that holds the particles together appears to be dissolved, causing the material to crumble. In the words of the report: "If left wholly unprotected from atmospheric action for one fifth of the time that marble structures are known to have stood, this noble edifice would become a mound of sand. The treasury building and the present patent office building are of the same material, and, having been in no manner protected, already show signs of decay." The only remedy proposed is by some method to render, if possible, the stone permanently and absolutely impermeable to moisture. To test the comparative durability of stones, M. Brard proposed a method, which was afterward adopted by the engineers of bridges and highways in France, and was supposed in its effects to represent the action of frost. According to the directions published by a commission appointed by the royal academy of sciences for inquiring into the value of this process, the specimens to be tested are cut into 2-inch cubes with sharp edges, and boiled for half an hour in a saturated solution of sulphate of soda in an earthen pipkin. The cubes are then taken out and suspended separately by threads over

cups containing a little of the solution in which the stones were boiled. The salt gradually forms small needles on the surface of the stone; and these should be washed off several times a day, for 4 or 5 days, in the cup beneath. If the stone be capable of resisting the action of frost, the crystals are supposed to abstract nothing from it; but if otherwise, small particles will drop off into the cup below, and these being collected and weighed will give the relative character as to durability of each specimen. Although experiments of this kind made in Paris agreed in their results with the effects noticed by long continued exposure of the same stones in buildings, the report on stone for the new houses of parliament (March, 1839) presents many instances of an opposite character. Some specimens well known to decay rapidly in a building disintegrated least of all; and others of the most durable quality disintegrated more than all the rest. This method of testing is consequently not to be depended upon. In fact, it appears from experience that the same stone weathers very differently in different localities; and that the atmosphere of large cities is much more destructive than that of the country. The magnesian limestone selected for the houses of parliament appears to have been satisfactorily proved at Southwell minster, in which, though exposed for 800 years, it still retains every mark of the tool; but in London it is soon found to suffer serious injury, from the effect, it is supposed, of the sulphurous acid in the smoke of the city. The softer limestones are also affected in the same way, so that it has even been necessary to resort to paint to protect Buckingham palace and other important buildings from decay. The Caen stone, it is said, endures well in lower Normandy, while it decays rapidly in Havre, and still more so in London. Some stones also are injuriously affected by the salt water atmosphere, which stand very well in the interior; some again, which are very durable if always either wet or dry, gradually give way when exposed to continual tidal changes; and others that stand well in fresh water disintegrate in salt water. Sandstones in general are least affected by heat, and limestones are readily cracked by it, and even partially calcined. Thus it appears that in selecting stones for structures of importance, special attention should be directed to the peculiar conditions to which they are to be exposed. A method of testing the durability of marbles for the U. S. capitol, adopted by the commission appointed for this purpose, was submitting them many times to the action of freezing mixtures. An account of this is given in MARBLE, vol. xi. p. 175. The mode of testing the resistance of stone to the crushing effects of heavy weights is also there described. The value of this proof in important structures can hardly be over-estimated. Prof. Walter R. Johnson states, from his experiments upon some of the marble introduced in the Washington monument at Washington, VOL. XV.-8

that he considers it not at all improbable that the monument will fall to pieces from its own weight before it is completed. A specimen of the stone in it 4 cubic inches in dimensions sustained a weight of only 9,000 lbs., while a single cubic inch of good material sustained 18,000 lbs. The following are results of trials made in Washington, under direction of the ordnance board, upon the resistance per square inch of some of the most important building stones of the country. Quincy_granite or syenite, sp. gr. 2.648, 29,220 lbs.; Pottsdam sandstone from Malone, New York, sp. gr. 2.591, 24,105 lbs.; blue micaceous rock employed for the foundation of the new capitol broke (average of 7 samples) under 15,503 lbs. The compact red sandstone of the Smithsonian institution broke under 9,518 lbs. The strength of several marbles tested varied from 7,000 to 10,000 lbs. The sandstone of the capitol broke under a pressure of 5,245 lbs. The sandstones were tested as they are usually laid in building with the lines of stratification perpendicular to the horizon; but the marbles and granites were tested in an exactly opposite position. Mr. R. G. Hatfield of New York found that the New Jersey and Connecticut sandstones broke under pressures varying from 3,000 to 3,500 lbs. per square inch. In Europe the strength of stones has been the subject of numerous experiments, and is treated by Rondelet, L'art de bâtir; Gothey, Construction des ponts, in Rozier's Journal de physique, vol. iv. (1774); and by Emerson in his "Mechanics." The following are given as the weights which it is judged may be safely borne upon a square foot of the stones named, which is of the actual crushing force:

The following are weights actually borne upon the square foot of stone in some buildings: the pillars of the church of All Saints at Angers, named in the table, support on each superficial foot a pressure of 86,000 lbs.; the Bagneaux stone in the pillars of the dome of the Pantheon at Paris, 60,000 lbs. ; a red sandstone pillar in the centre of the chapter house at Elgin, 40,000 lbs.; the piers under the dome

of St. Paul's in London, 39,000 lbs.; those under the dome of St. Peter's at Rome, 33,000 lbs. (See STRENGTH OF MATERIALS). The methods of extracting stones from their beds are described under each variety (see also BLASTING); the mode of shaping blocks of stone by sawing in the article MARBLE, and of polishing in LAPIDARY. The dressing of blocks of stone is usually performed with wedge-shaped hammers by hand, the surface being gradually reduced by light blows, each one being struck in regular order close to the points abraded by the preceding blow. The work upon hard stones is necessarily laborious, and machines have been devised in England and in the United States for accomplishing it by steam power upon several plans. By one method large masses of hard stone are cut by a series of chisels, which follow each other in the same track, each striking a heavy blow, and which are fixed to a frame that travels on a kind of railway. Pavement slabs are cut in Dean Forest by revolving disks, 10 or 12 feet in diameter, which carry on the periphery 20 or 30 cutters. A machine devised by the earl of Caithness, for dressing the surface of hard slabs for street pavements, consists of about 30 iron bars standing vertically by the side of each other and each toothed at the bottom; these are raised successively and fall heavily upon the stone, which is carried along slowly beneath them. The following is an account of a very efficient machine invented by Mr. Charles Wilson of Springfield, Mass., for dressing sandstone. Broad wheels or cylinders are made by placing 8 to 12 disks of steel, 7 inches in diameter, and as thick as a common circular saw of that size, alternating with iron washers ≥ of an inch thick and inch less in diameter than the disks. Two such cylinders are adjusted upon their axes so that the cutters stand at an angle of about 25° with a horizontal line, and are then caused to revolve in an "iron head," which passes quickly back and forth across the stone as this is moved slowly along upon its carriage, like that used in saw mills. A rough block of 6 superficial feet has been smoothly dressed in this way in 8 minutes. Marble and other soft stones are sometimes cut into parallel slabs by circular cutters of this kind set upon a horizontal axis, at distances apart equal to the intended width of the strips. Circular pieces are sometimes cut by means of chisels fixed to the ends of revolving horizontal arms. Small circles have been cut with hollow cylindrical chisels made to revolve upon their axes; in this way pillars have been made, and hollow cylinders or tubes of stone. (See PIPE, vol. xiii. p. 346.) Stones are sometimes turned in lathes shaped with cutting tools; and mouldings upon flat stones are produced by running the stones through lathes upon which are fixed the tools, sometimes of iron, having the counterpart shape of the moulding to be made. Such tools may be fed with sand and water.-The want of durable

The

building stones in certain localities, and the extreme labor of dressing them, have led to many attempts to produce artificial substitutes, that might be moulded from liquid or plastic compounds, and which should afterward become solid and durable; and also to produce certain applications which should harden and render more permanent soft stones that are easily dressed. Bricks are successful substitutes for stone, and pottery and terra cotta have been produced in various forms applicable to architectural purposes. The cinders of iron smelting furnaces have also been run into moulds, and strengthened by slow cooling, with the same object; but this application does not seem to have succeeded. It has been also proposed to mould the alkaline solutions of silica (see SILICATES, Soluble); but their employment seems likely to prove more beneficial in coating the softer stones. Ransome's process, recently introduced into England, by which he produces artificial stones for a great variety of purposes, as grindstones, whetstones for scythes, mouldings, &c., for decorations, tombstones, tablets, and chimney pieces, consists in moulding a mixture of 10 parts of sand, 1 of powdered flint, 1 of clay, and 1 of the alkaline solution of flint, after they have been thoroughly kneaded into a putty-like consistence. proportions of the ingredients vary with different articles. The moulds are generally of plaster of Paris, oiled over and dusted with finely powdered glass, and the compound is rammed into them with a stick. When the casts are taken out, they are first washed over or floated with a diluted solution of the silicate. To cause the casts to dry equally and to prevent the formation of an external crust impervious to the moisture from the interior, the ingenious expedient was adopted of placing the articles in a close chamber heated by steam, into which a jet of steam is admitted, until the stones attain throughout a temperature of 212° or more. The vapor then being allowed to escape slowly from the chamber, the stones are left uniformly dried. A variety of stony mixtures have been compounded so as to resemble many of the natural stones, and the materials have been held together by cements of different sorts; but none of them have ever been brought into extensive use. The external applications proposed (beside the soluble silica) for protecting the surface of stones are numerous. The most promising of these seem to be of oily, fatty resinous matters, which the stone is made to imbibe, sometimes by being boiled in them. Gutta percha, quicklime, copperas, and various other substances have also been introduced into the preparations. Patents were taken out in England in 1856 for applications, first of a solution of sulphate of zinc or of alum, followed by one of sulphur in oil; and another for a solution of wax in coal tar, naphtha, &c.

STONE, the common name of calculus in the urinary bladder, for the composition of