the readiest outlet is in the bed of the ocean, and the fresh water is violently forced by its greater head up through the salt water, so that it may be collected at the surface almost or entirely unmixed. A spring of this kind in Boston harbor, now covered by Long wharf, supplies the shipping with water; another in the gulf of Spezia, a branch of the gulf of Genoa, rises in a powerful jet; and on the S. coast of Cuba, some distance from the shore, the fresh water springs burst upward with such violence that boats cannot safely approach the spot. Intermitting springs are those which flow for a certain period and then cease for a time, and so on alternately flowing and disappearing without regard to the supplies of rain. This is probably owing to the water collecting in a natural reservoir at an upper level, the outlet of which is a close channel through the rock curved upward so as to act like a siphon. When the water fills the reservoir and rises above the arch of the siphon, the flow commences, and continues until the discharge has carried the water down to the level of the shorter limb of the siphon; it then stops until the water has regained its former height. The younger Pliny in a letter to Licinius describes a spring of this character near the Larian lake, the modern lake of Como, which ebbs and flows regularly 3 times a day. A more celebrated one is the ancient pool of Siloam, which was observed by Dr. Robinson as still rising and falling at intervals in the manner described by Jerome and subsequent writers. From the inhabitants of the vicinity he learned that the flowing occurs at irregular intervals; sometimes 2 or 3 times a day, and sometimes, in summer, once in 2 or 3 days. The Geysers are intermitting hot springs; but the changes in their flow are due to other causes, as probably the sudden conversion of the waters into steam by coming in contact with beds of highly heated rock or lava, or the accumulation of large quantities of steam in the upper part of cavities until it can drive out the water beneath through the channels leading from the bottom to the surface. Hot springs are common in volcanic countries, in regions of extinct volcanoes, as that of Auvergne in central France, and in districts where the rock formations are traversed and displaced by long and deep lines of faults, as in central Virginia. In these localities the waters must penetrate far down to highly heated beds of rock, possibly ancient lava beds not yet cooled; or the depth may be so great that their high temperature may be owing to the general increase of heat observed in descending into the interior. (See CENTRAL HEAT.) Heated, and at the same time under great pressure, the waters possess powerful solvent properties, and thus they become charged with salts and gases by which the mineral springs are characterized. As the waters cool or evaporate, some portion of the solid matters held in solution is set free and deposited around the springs. Thus are produced

great beds of travertine, such as are observed in Tuscany and other parts of Italy—a spongy deposit of calcareous matter, which incrusts all substances it comes in contact with, and rapidly forms one class of petrifactions. The thermal springs of Hierapolis in Asia Minor were particularly celebrated in ancient times; and it was stated of the transforming power of the waters, that if these were led about the vineyards and gardens the channels became long fences, each a single stone. At the present time there is to be seen a powerful hot spring at the place, and a cliff of calcareous rock formed from its deposits. The Geysers furnish examples of silicious deposits similarly produced. Cold springs as well as hot are of ten charged with ferruginous matters, derived from the decomposition of pyritous iron contained in the rocks over which the waters have flowed. The great ochreous deposits result from such springs, and the accumulations sometimes amount to important beds of iron ore, as described under BOG ORE. Springs charged with different mineral substances which give to them special importance are further noticed in the account of these minerals under their own names, as BORACIC ACID, GAS, PETROLEUM, and SALT.

SPRING, in astronomy, one of the 4 seasons of the year, commencing for the northern hemisphere at the time of the vernal equinox, or on March 21, and ending at the time of the summer solstice, or June 21. In the United States the spring is regarded as including the 3 months March, April, and May. (See SEASONS.)

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SPRING, in mechanics, an elastic body, variously constructed and of different materials according to the purpose for which it is designed. The applications of springs are very numerous and for many totally different objects. Many are used, as in carriages, to relieve the jar caused by hard bodies coming suddenly in contact with each other; others as a moving power, acting through the tendency of a coiled metallic spring to unwind itself (see CLOCKS AND WATCHES), or by sudden release from a state of tension to communicate motion, as the bow to the arrow, gun spring to the cock, the spring pole to the drill, and in many more such instances; others are employed as regulators to control the movements of wheel work, as seen in the hair springs of watches. All of the above act on the principle of resisting compression; others, by the amount of extension produced in a spring coiled around a central axis, are used as measurers of weight. (See BALANCE.)-In organic bodies springs are also a common feature, and serve some of the purposes for which they are introduced in mechanical structures. The cartilages in the joints are springs that prevent the ends of the bones from jarring upon each other. It is by the sudden release of a springy membrane in the structure of the flea, that this little animal is enabled to project itself instantaneously 200 times the height

of its own body; and in the vegetable kingdom springs are provided, sometimes round the outside and sometimes round the inside of the seed vessels, which finally burst these suddenly open, and scatter the seeds for the next crop.-Carriage springs contribute not merely to the comfort of the rider, but they lessen the force of draught by easing the load over the obstacles, and very materially increase the durability of the carriage itself. One of the early forms of these springs, introduced in the 17th century, consisted of two broad leather straps extending from an elevated framework on one axle to a similar frame on the other; upon these the body of the carriage was securely fastened. The antique 4-wheeled state carriages of Europe are mostly constructed on this plan; and a good evidence of its efficiency is the fact that many of the best stage coaches of the present time are thus supported. The principle was also in common use not long since in 2-wheeled gigs or chaises, and is still in the West Indian volante, points of support behind being provided by two long slender arms, connected by a cross bar at their extremities, to which bar the straps are secured. Swung upon the straps, which admit a limited lateral motion, with the advantage of the elasticity of the arms behind and of the shafts in front, the spring of these carriages is most perfect. An improvement was early introduced by making the frames that supported the straps elastic, by means of bands of steel curved over in the shape of the letter C, over the top of which the straps, secured at the bottom, were passed. The strength of these springs may be increased to any desired extent, by introducing several thicknesses of steel plates in the lower portion of the spring. Sometimes the framework which supports the C springs rests itself upon the form of elliptic springs known as under springs. Steel springs of various forms are now generally in use for carriages, being light and occupying little room. Those known as elliptic are steel plates or thin bars, so shaped that when two are put together they present an elliptical figure, and being secured together at the ends a spring is produced as pressure is brought to bear upon them to flatten the ellipse. They are bolted below upon the axle and above to the frame of the carriage by their central part, and are strengthened by additional thicknesses of steel in this portion. Very strong springs, for the heaviest wagons and railroad cars, are made of straight pieces of steel plates of gradually increasing lengths piled one upon another and fastened directly to the axle, or else over and across each end of it to the frame which rests upon the axles at these points. The frame of the carriage is secured to the ends of the longest and uppermost plate by eye bolts passing through these ends, which are turned over for their reception.-The varieties of steel springs for carriages are too numerous to be particularly named. Locomotives and railroad carriages demanded springs of unusual strength

and efficiency, and to act as near as possible with equal effect under heavy and light loads. These also have been devised of different forms and materials. Air, being the most elastic of all bodies, makes an excellent spring, the weight resting upon inverted hollow cylinders, set upon pistons fitting air-tight. In practice it has been found exceedingly difficult to prevent the escape of the air around the piston; and the following improvement has been devised for this purpose. The inverted cylinder, or rough cup, is provided with a very strong but flexible diaphragm or cover of several thicknesses of India rubber, stout canvas, and leather, covered on the inside with sugar house molasses. This rests upon a rounded head of wood, and is filled out with compressed air. forced in by a small air pump, the pressure amounting it may be to 150 lbs. to the square inch. To prevent the air from passing through the pores of the cast iron pump, this is lined with tin. India rubber car springs are very extensively used. They are made of disks of any thickness, piled upon each other to any desired height, and contained in a cylindrical case, in the top of which fits a piston resting on the pile. It is obvious that between the frame to which the pistons are attached and the weight other springs may be introduced. Instead of India rubber disks others of steel are also used, saucer-shaped, and arranged in pairs upon each other, the pair consisting of two disks set face to face. The disks are made more durable and efficient by corrugating the metal. Another form is of flat disks of steel, less than of an inch thick, set between disks of cast iron of the same diameter, and made alternately with convex and concave surfaces. The tendency of the pressure applied to such a pile is to change the flat steel face into a slightly dishing form, which is resisted by the elasticity of the steel. Single disks operate when the load is light; the occasional introduction of two together in the pile provides for the same action with an increased load, and of three or more for still greater weights. Thus the same pile is very ingeniously made to furnish springs of different degrees of stiffness, which are brought into action only as the load upon them requires. A pile 6 inches high and of 5 inches diameter of outside case admits a motion of 13 inches before it is fully compressed. Springs thus designed for sustaining heavy bodies may be also applied to prevent their horizontal concussion, as of cars upon railroads, and also to relieve them from the sudden jerk which without springs they would receive in starting.-How it is that steel when tempered receives the high degree of elasticity that renders this metal so useful for springs is not understood. By grinding and polishing the property may be lost, and by hardening and tempering it is restored. It thus seems probable that the elasticity resides in the thin blue oxidized surface. The removal of the blue tint from a pendulum

left the army, and in 1777 was ordained pastor of a church in Newburyport, in which relation he continued till his death. He was a man of great influence and weight of character, and, as the leading minister of the Hopkinsian party, was active in promoting the union of the two parties in the Congregational church, effected by the establishment of the Andover theological seminary, and also in the organization of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions. He published about 25 miscellaneous discourses, and one or two small controversial works.-GARDINER, D.D., LL.D., an American clergyman, son of the preceding, born at Newburyport, Mass., in Feb. 1785. He was graduated at Yale college in 1805, and after studying law a short time went to the island of Bermuda as a teacher, and remained there nearly two years, at the same time pursuing the study of law. After his return he was admitted to the bar, and practised more than a year, when he resolved to devote himself to the ministry. He studied about 8 months at the Andover seminary, and was ordained as pastor of the Brick church (Presbyterian) in New York, Aug. 10, 1810, in which office he still continues (1862). He has been elected successively president of Hamilton and Dartmouth colleges, but in both cases declined. Beside a large number of sermons and addresses in pamphlet form, and numerous contributions to periodicals, he has published "Essays on the Distinguishing Traits of Christian Character" (8vo., 1813); "Memoirs of the Rev. Samuel J. Mills" (8vo., 1820); "Fragments from the Study of a Pastor" (12mo., 1838); "Obligations of the World to the Bible" (12mo., 1844); "The Attraction of the Cross" (8vo., 1845); "The Bible not of Man" (12mo., 1847); "Discourses to Seamen" (12mo., 1847); Power of the Pulpit" (12mo., 1848); moirs of Hannah L. Murray" (8vo., 1849); "The Mercy Seat" (8vo., 1849); "First Things" (2 vols. 8vo., 1851); "The Glory of Christ" (2 vols. 8vo., 1852); " Contrast between Good and Bad Men" (2 vols. 8vo., 1855); "Brick Church Memorial" (8vo., 1861).

spring by its immersion in weak acid was found by Mr. Dent to impair its elasticity, causing the chronometer to lose nearly a minute each hour; and a second and equal immersion scarcely caused any further loss. In stating this to the British association, he added that such springs get stronger in a minute degree during the first 2 or 3 years they are in use, from some atmospheric change; when they are coated with gold by the electrotype process no such change is observable. Watch springs, as described by Holtzapffel, are hammered out of round steel wire, of suitable diameter, until they fill the gauge for width, which also insures equality of thickness. When the holes are punched in their ends and they are filed smooth on the edge, they are bound with wire in a loose open coil, and heated over a charcoal fire upon a perforated revolving plate. They are then hardened by dipping them in oil, and the oil is blazed off. The next process is grinding and polishing with emery and oil between lead blocks, which destroys the elasticity. A subsequent hammering on a very bright anvil restores this, "putting the nature into the spring." The coloring of orange or deep blue, which some consider merely ornamental, is imparted by moving the spring back and forth 2 or 3 inches at a time over a flat plate of iron or wood under which a little spirit lamp is kept burning. The spring is finally coiled by attaching it when cold to a small axis and causing this to revolve by means of its winch handle. Chronometer balance springs, of screw form, are shaped and tempered by winding them into the square thread of a screw of the right diameter and pitch. The two ends being fastened to the screw, the whole is carefully enveloped in platinum foil and tightly bound with wire. It is then heated in a piece of gun barrel closed at one end and plunged into oil, which hardens the spring almost without discoloring it. The outer covering is now taken off, and the spring is let down to the blue before it is released. The hair springs of common watches are frequently left soft; but the best are hardened in the coil upon the plain cylinder, and are then curled into the spiral form between the edge of a blunt knife and the thumb, as in curling up a narrow ribbon or paper. These springs are so delicate that it takes 3,200 of them to weigh an ounce; the soft ones are valued at 2s. 6d. each, and the hardened and tempered ones at 10s. 6d. Thus an ounce of metal, worth originally less than 2d., is made in the one case worth £400, in the other £1,600.

SPRING BALANCE. See BALANCE. SPRING, SAMUEL, D.D., an American clergyman, born at Northbridge, Mass., Feb. 27, 1746, died in Newburyport, March 4, 1819. He was graduated at Princeton college in 1771, and in 1775, having been licensed to preach, became a chaplain in the continental army, and accompanied the expedition under Col. Arnold to Canada. At the close of 1776 he

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SPRINGFIELD, a city and the shire town of Hampden co., Mass., situated on the E. bank of the Connecticut river, 98 m. W. by S. from Boston, and 138 m. N. N. E. from New York, in lat. 42° 6' 10" N., long. 72° 35′ 12′′ W.; pop. in 1860, 15,199. The town is drained by Mill river, which furnishes water power for manufacturing establishments. The E. portion of the town, where the U. S. armory is situated, is considerably elevated, while the W. part is level. The city is well built, and has wide streets which are lined with trees. The city hall is a noble building in the Romanesque style, and, beside the city offices and library, has a large public hall which will accommodate comfortably an audience of over 2,500 persons. There are 12 churches in the city, viz.: 1 African, 1 Baptist, 4 Congregational, 1 Episcopal, 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Second Advent, 1 Swedenbor

gian, 1 Unitarian, and 1 Universalist. The city library, formed in 1859, has rooms in the city hall, and numbers 8,000 volumes; there is a valuable scientific and historical museum in connection with it, and both are rapidly increasing. The schools of the city include 1 high, 17 grammar, 15 primary, and 6 mixed schools. There is one newspaper, issuing daily, weekly, and tri-weekly editions, and having a larger circulation than any other newspaper in New England out of Boston. The city has 5 banks, with an aggregate capital of $1,200,000; 3 savings banks, with $1,381,745.68 on deposit; 4 fire insurance companies, with an aggregate capital of $650,000; and a mutual life insurance company, with $400,000 capital. Hampden park, opened in 1857 for national horse shows, on the bank of the Connecticut, contains 60 acres, with a costly dike to protect it from the spring freshets. The Springfield cemetery contains about 40 acres, with a great variety of shade trees and fountains. Springfield is the focal point of 3 lines of railroad, which meet in one immense station house, each having extensive connections; these are the western railroad, to Albany, connecting at Worcester with the Boston and Worcester; the New Haven, Hartford, and Springfield; and the Connecticut river railroad. The manufactures are important. The great national armory is now the only manufactory of small arms owned and worked by the United States government. The process of manufacturing the rifle musket, the principal arm now made, and which requires for its completion more than 500 distinct operations, is described in the article GUN, vol. viii. p. 572. In addition to the ample water power, a steam engine of 70 horse power has recently been introduced. Over 1,500 men are employed, the work is kept up night and day, and the production is nearly 12,000 complete guns per month, and is to be increased by additions of men and machinery till 200,000 stand of arms are produced annually. The workmen are all paid by the piece. The germ of the armory existed during the revolution, but it was not formally established till 1794. From that time till 1841 it was under civil superintendence, and the work was not satisfactory. In 1841 Major (now BrigadierGeneral) J. W. Ripley was appointed superintendent. In 1854 a change was again made to a civil superintendency, but Major Ripley's system was maintained. During the year 1861 a military superintendent, Major Dyer, was again appointed, and the vast increase of production consequent upon the war has been made without any deterioration in the quality of the arm. The weapon now made is of the model of 1855, and varies little from the Enfield musket. Maynard's primer has been discarded, and the nipple for percussion caps restored. The weight of the rifle musket is 9 lbs. When not required for immediate use, the guns are stored in the great arsenal, 200 feet long by 70 wide and 3 stories high, which is capable of containing 100,000 stand of arms on

each floor. The armory grounds, which are extensive, are enclosed with an iron fence and beautifully laid out with trees, shrubbery, and flowers. New buildings, required by the exigencies of the time, and for which an appropriation of $500,000 has been made, are soon to be erected. The manufacture of firearms is also carried on by several private firms. There is a large machine factory, making steam engines and boilers, steam saw mills, cotton presses, and coining and gun-making machinery; 2 extensive founderies for casting car and locomotive wheels, and various light and heavy work; a car manufactory, building baggage, freight, and passenger railroad cars to order, and also artillery carriages for the government; a gas company, furnishing the city; 2 sash, blind, and door manufactories; a steam saw and lumber dressing mill; an India rubber manufacturing company, making suspender and other elastic goods; a candy manufactory, a paint and chemical company, a woollen mill, several flouring mills, and two gold chain manufactories.-Springfield was made a city in 1852. It is divided into 8 wards, and is governed by a mayor elected annually, 8 aldermen, and 16 common councilmen. The fire department embraces 6 engine companies, 2 of which belong to the U. S. armory, but do duty wherever required.

Springfield was first settled in 1635 by emigrants from Roxbury, who on May 14 drew up and signed an agreement for self-government. The place was first named Agawam, the Indian name of a river of West Springfield, which with several adjacent towns was then included in its boundaries. In 1637 a church was formed, and in 1638 the settlers chose William Pynchon magistrate, and in April of the same year named the settlement Springfield (from the name of his residence in England) in compliment to him. Mr. Pynchon, who was an enterprising merchant as well as a theologian and author, returned to England in 1652; but his son John remained, and in 1662 erected the famous "Pynchon house," the first brick house in the Connecticut valley, and long a serviceable fortress against the assaults of the Indians. This venerable structure stood till 1831, and is represented on the city seal. In 1675, during King Philip's war, the Indians burned the settlement, destroying about 30 houses and 25 barns. In Jan. 1787, the armory, which then contained a considerable quantity of arms, was attacked by Daniel Shays and his party, during Shays's rebellion; but they were dispersed at the firing of the first cannon by the state troops. The growth of the town was slow till the opening of the western railroad in 1838, since which it has increased rapidly.

SPRINGFIELD, a city and the capital of Clarke co., Ohio, situated near the junction of Lagonda creek with Mad river, 43 m. W. from Columbus, and 84 m. N. from Cincinnati; pop. in 1860, 7,202. It is in the heart of one of the richest and most populous agricultural regions in the Union, and is well laid out and hand

somely built. The public buildings are substantial structures, and there are many elegant private residences. It has great water power for manufacturing purposes, and there are numerous large flouring mills in and around the city. There are iron founderies, machine shops, 2 linseed oil mills, a woollen factory, a paper mill, and numerous other factories. Limestone is largely quarried and burned, producing lime of excellent quality. A number of important railroads centre here, viz.: the Springfield and Columbus; the Sandusky, Dayton, and Cincinnati; the Springfield and Delaware; the Little Miami; and the Columbus and Xenia. There are 1 daily, 1 tri-weekly, and 2 weekly news papers, 3 banks, 16 churches, and 2 flourishing female seminaries. Wittenberg college (Lutheran) is situated here. A large trade is carried on in wheat, flour, Indian corn, and other produce, and many cattle and swine are exported by railroad to eastern markets.

SPRINGFIELD, a city and the capital of Illinois, and seat of justice of Sangamon co., 188 m. S. W. from Chicago, and 97 m. N. N. E. from St. Louis; pop. in 1860, 9,600. It is situated on a beautiful prairie, 4 m. S. of Sangamon river. Its streets are broad, intersect each other at right angles, and are tastefully adorned with shade trees. From the beauty of the place and its surroundings, it is termed the "Flower City." The state house is one of the finest buildings of the kind in the country, and the other public buildings are handsome and substantial structures. There are 5 newspapers, 4 banking houses, several steam flouring mills, founderies and machine shops, 12 or 14 churches, and 4 public and several private schools. It is the seat of the Illinois state university. It is on the line of the St. Louis, Alton, and Chicago, and the Toledo, Wabash, and Great Western railroads, and is the point of shipment for immense quantities of produce and great numbers of cattle and swine. The value of real and personal property in 1857 was $4,451,907. Springfield was made the state capital in 1836, and was incorporated as a city in 1840. SPRINGFIELD, the capital of Greene co., Mo., on the line of the S. W. branch of the Pacific railroad, 250 m. S. W. from St. Louis, and 130 S. S. W. from Jefferson City; pop. about 1,500. Its situation is high and healthy, and prior to the commencement of the war of secession it was the most important and flourishing town in S. W. Missouri. It has a city charter. During the war Springfield and its vicinity have been the scene of several important movements. Brig. Gen. Lyon, commanding a division of the federal forces, arrived at Springfield, Aug. 5, 1861. On the 8th a skirmish occurred at Dug creek; and on the 10th a battle was fought at David's and Wilson's creeks, the first 9 and the second 15 miles from Springfield, in which Gen. Lyon, with 3 divisions, commanded by Gen. Sigel, Major Sturgis, and himself, attacked the confederate force in greatly superior numbers under Gens. McCulloch and

Price; and after 6 hours' severe fighting, the federal troops remained in possession of the camp, but with the loss of Gen. Lyon and 223 killed, 721 wounded, and 291 taken prisoners on the federal side, and a still heavier loss on the side of the confederates. After the battle Gen. Sigel, taking the chief command, was obliged to fall back on Springfield and the next day to Rolla, to await reënforcements. Gen. Rains, of the confederate army, occupied Springfield with 4 regiments of cavalry on the evening of the 11th. On Oct. 25 Major Charles Zágonyi, commander of Gen. Fremont's body guard, with 160 mounted troops of that guard, in advance of the main federal army, attacked the confederate force at Springfield and captured the town, while held by about 2,000 troops; his loss was 50 killed, wounded, and missing; the confederate loss was 60 killed. On Nov. 3, Maj. Gen. Hunter, appointed to supersede Fremont in command of the federal forces in the department of the West, arrived with his staff at Springfield, and on the 9th abandoned it with his army and returned northeastward. On the 27th it was again occupied by the confederate forces, but again abandoned by them on the advance of the U. S. army under Gen. Curtis in Feb. 1862, by which they were driven into Arkansas and defeated at Sugar creek and Pea Ridge, Benton co., March 6, 7, and 8. SPRUCE. See FIR.

SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON, an English preacher, born at Kelvedon, Essex, June 19, 1834. His father and grandfather were preachers in the Independent denomination. At the age of 16 he commenced teaching as an usher at Newmarket, and subsequently at Cambridge. Not long after going to Cambridge he connected himself with a "Lay Preachers' Association" there, and went out almost every evening to some one of the villages adjacent, to conduct religious meetings. Soon he commenced preaching, and before he was 18 became pastor of a small Baptist congregation at Waterbeach, one of these villages. In 1854 he was called to the New Park street Baptist chapel in Southwark, London; and his preaching soon drew such crowds that the congregation removed first to Exeter hall, and then to Surrey music hall, the largest public room in London. In 1861 a new chapel of great size was completed for his congregation. Mr. Spurgeon for several years preached an average of nearly a sermon a day, and has beside visited the continent several times, corresponded regularly with an American newspaper, written several books, and superintended the education of a number of young men for the ministry. His sermons have nearly from the first been printed weekly, and 6 volumes have been published collectively.

SPURZHEIM, JOHN GASPAR, M.D., a Prussian philosopher, and one of the founders of phrenology, born at Longwich, Prussia, Dec. 31, 1776, died in Boston, Mass., Nov. 10, 1832. He was educated at the university of Treves, and studied divinity and philosophy. When