more subtle indication of the individual mind. It was this which enabled him to animate his canvas not with the appearance of mere general life, but with that peculiar distinctive life which separates the humblest individual from his kind." Stuart was a man of fine social qualities, and a most accomplished talker.

STUART, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT, Cardinal York, the last male representative of the Stuart family, born in Rome in 1725, died in Venice in 1807. He was the younger brother of the pretender Charles Edward, whom he was preparing to aid with a body of French troops assembled at Dunkirk, when the overthrow of the Jacobites at Culloden ruined the Stuart cause in Britain. He subsequently took orders in the Roman Catholic church, and in 1747 was appointed by Benedict XIV. a cardinal. On the death of his brother in 1788 he assumed the title of king of England as Henry IX., gratia Dei, non voluntate hominum, as the medal which he caused to be struck on the occasion declared. He was subsequently obliged to take refuge from French invasion in Venice, and during the last years of his life was dependent upon the British court for the means of subsistence.

STUART, JAMES, sometimes called Athenian Stuart, an English antiquary and architect, born in London in 1713, died Feb. 2, 1788. In early life he was a painter of fans, a branch of art then greatly in vogue, and to which he devoted himself until about 1742. For several years subsequent to this he resided in Rome, and in 1750 he accompanied Nicholas Revett on an antiquarian tour to Greece, remaining in Athens from March, 1751, to the close of 1753. Returning to London in 1755, he set about the preparation, in conjunction with his fellow traveller, of a work on the "Antiquities of Athens," of which the 1st volume appeared in 1762, and the 2d and 3d posthumously in 1790-'94. Subsequent to his return to England, Stuart was much employed in London as an architect.

STUART, JOHN, Earl of Bute. See BUTE. STUART, MOSES, an American divine and author, born at Wilton, Conn., March 26, 1780, died at Andover, Mass., Jan. 4, 1852. He was graduated at Yale college in 1799, was employed for some time as a teacher, studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802, and for the two succeeding years was a tutor in Yale college. He afterward studied theology, and was ordained pastor of the first Congregational church of New Haven, March 5, 1806. In 1809 he was appointed professor of sacred literature in the theological seminary at Andover, which office he held until 1848, when he resigned in consequence of the advancing infirmities of age. Beside 11 or 12 occasional sermons, and some other minor works, he published a "Grammar of the Hebrew Language without Points" (1813); "Letters to the Rev. William E. Channing containing Remarks on his Sermon recently preached and published in Baltimore” (1819);

a

"Grammar of the Hebrew Language with Points" (1821); "Letters to Dr. Miller on the Eternal Generation of the Son of God" (1822); "Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews" (2 vols. 8vo., 1827-'8); "Hebrew Chrestomathy" (1829); "Essay on the Question whether the use of Distilled Liquors or Traffic in them is compatible at the present time with making a Profession of Christianity" (1830); "Letters to Dr. Channing on Religious Liberty" (1830); a "Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans" (1832); "The Mode of Christian Baptism prescribed in the New Testament" (1833); “A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect" (2d ed., improved, 1834); "Hints on the Prophecies" (2d ed., 1842); Commentary on the Apocalypse" (1845); a "Letter to the Editor of the North American Review on Hebrew, Grammar" (1847); "A Scriptural View of the Wine Question" (1848); a "Commentary on Daniel" (1850); "Conscience and the Constitution" (1851); a "Commentary on Ecclesiastes" (1851); and a "Commentary on Proverbs" (1852). Professor Stuart was distinguished for great quickness and versatility of mind, indomitable perseverance, noble and generous impulses, and an enthusiastic interest in every subject that engaged his attention.

STUCCO (Ital.), a name applied to the hard external finish given to the coat of plaster upon walls, sometimes consisting of fine lime and sand without hair, hand-floated twice and well trowelled (see PLASTERING); but the term is more properly applied to a hard finish prepared of a mixture of ground marble or chalk, with pure lime as a cement, in such proportions and so worked as to produce a durable and uniform surface susceptible of polish. This sort is adapted for covering walls and internal decorations; but for external work the mixture is made of coarser materials and with cements adapted to withstand the weather. Pulverized alabaster or gypsum is sometimes used instead of marble, mixed with rich lime, carefully slaked and sifted, and then trowelled on to a rough coat until the surface is perfectly smooth. A solution of gelatine or strong glue or gum arabic is sometimes used instead of water to render the preparation more durable, and metallic oxides are added to produce desirable tints. The cements or stuccoes known in England as Keene's, Martin's, and Parian are made of plaster of Paris, mixed with a saturated solution either of alum, sulphate of potash, or borax, then dried in the air, and baked at a dull red heat. The preparation is pulverized and sifted, and is finally slaked with a solution of alum. Martin's is made with pearlash as well as alum, and is baked at a higher heat than the others. When the surface is perfectly dry, it may be polished by rubbing_with_fine grit stones, followed by tripoli powder, chalk, and oil. The application described in the article SCAGLIOLA is a variety of stucco.

STUHL-WEISSENBURG (Hung. Székes Fejérvár), a town of Hungary, capital of the

county of the same name, situated on the left bank of the Csorgó, near the border of an extensive morass, 38 m. S. S. W. from Buda; pop. 22,600. The principal buildings are the cathedral and the episcopal palace. There are manufactures of woollen and linen goods, hardware, and several other articles. The kings of Hungary were formerly crowned here, and the cathedral contains many of their tombs.

STURGEON, the name given to the cartilaginous fishes of the class of ganoids and family sturionida. The body is elongated and fusiform, covered with a rough skin protected by 5 longitudinal rows of tubercular plates; the largest of these rows is along the back, and there is also one on each side, and one from each pectoral to the ventral fins; the plates are flattened, and marked with radiating striæ. The head is depressed, and ends in a long triangular snout covered with bony plates; mouth funnel-shaped and protrusible, on the under surface, without teeth, having in front a few depending barbels, evidently organs of touch; gill covers very large and gills free; pseudo-branchia and spiracles are present, but no branchiostegal rays; fins well developed, the dorsal and anal opposite and behind the ventrals; tail heterocercal or unsymmetrical, the vertebral cord being prolonged into the upper lobe as in the sharks, and strengthened by fulcra along its upper margin; a soft caudal on the under surface of the tail. The vertebral column consists of an undivided soft chorda dorsalis; the air bladder is very large, communicating freely with the oesophagus; there is a spiral valve in the intestine, and a conglomerate pancreas. They are generally of large size, inhabiting the northern temperate seas of both coasts of America, eastern Europe, and western Asia, from which they ascend the rivers in spring for the purpose of spawning, returning to the salt water in autumn; species are also found in the great American fresh water lakes, which never descend to the sea. They are oviparous; the food consists of any soft substances which they stir up from the bottom with their snouts, and of small fish; they have a habit of jumping out of water, generally considered for mere sport, but most likely to disengage from their gills and bodies the lampreys which eat into their flesh.-The genus acipenser (Linn.) has the characters of the family. The common sturgeon of Europe (A. sturio, Linn.) attains a length of 6 to 10 feet, and sometimes more; it is found in the Caspian and Black seas and the rivers opening into them, and sometimes on the coasts of Great Britain and the Baltic; the flesh is delicate, compared to veal, and was in old times considered a royal dish; it was served with great pomp in ancient Greece and Rome, but in modern days is held in far less esteem; still it is largely consumed in Russia, fresh, salted, and pickled. A larger species, also found in the seas and rivers of S. E. Europe, is the beluga (A. huso, Linn.), attaining a length of 12

to 15 feet and a weight of 1,200 lbs., and occasionally of much larger size; it ascends the rivers opening into the Caspian and Black seas, with other and smaller species. The flesh is tough and of inferior quality; the sound or air bladder furnishes an abundant supply of isinglass, for which great numbers are caught in Russia. (See GELATINE, vol. viii. p. 123.) Caviare is also made from the roe of the female, which sometimes constitutes of the weight of the fish; the skin is used for harness leather, and the dorsal cord, cut in pieces and dried, is used as food. The sterlet (A. Ruthenus, Linn.), found in the Caspian, and growing to a length of 2 or 3 feet, furnishes a most delicate food and the best caviare. Some idea of the commercial importance of this fishery may be gathered from the fact that in 1829, in the Caspian sea alone, about 8,800 persons were employed, obtaining 786,000 sturgeons, yielding 28,500 lbs. of caviare and 1,100 lbs. of isinglass; the fish are taken in nets as they go up to spawn. The color in these species is brown of various shades, the plates whitish, and the abdomen silvery.-In North America sturgeons do not inhabit the rivers flowing into the Arctic ocean, and are not found north of the watersheds between lat. 53° and 54° N., where the mean annual temperature is about 33° F.; they seldom enter clear cold streams, but ascend muddy rivers in such numbers that many large Indian tribes. subsist entirely on their flesh in summer; each watershed has its own species, varying in some minor characters. The sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus, Mitch.) attains a length of from 3 to 7 feet; it is found on the coasts of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; it is common in Long Island sound from the middle of June to October, and is taken by harpoon and in nets; the smaller specimens are esteemed for the table; it is grayish brown above, silvery on the sides, and white below. The lake sturgeon (A. rubicundus, Lesueur) is olive brown above, white below, with the fins reddish; it attains a length of 4 feet, and is found in the great lakes and in the Ohio river. The short-nosed sturgeon (A. brevirostris, Mitch.) is dusky above and white below; the snout is short and blunt; it attains a length of 2 to 5 feet, and is so common in the Hudson that its flesh in the market has been known as Albany beef; it much resembles the A. sturio of Europe. Other species are described from the northern waters, the rivers of the N. W. coast, and from Lake Superior, by Richardson and Agassiz.-The genus polyodon (Lacép.) or spatularia (Shaw) has the general form of acipenser, but is without the bony plates on the body and head; the snout is very much elongated, and compressed into a thin leaf-like organ, partly bony and partly cutaneous, sometimes nearly as long as the body; gill covers very large, extending far back in a membranous point; the mouth is wide, with numerous minute teeth in the young

animal, which are lost with age. The spoonbill sturgeon (P. folium, Lacép.) is steel-blue above and white below; it attains a length of 5 feet, and is found in the Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries; it is also called shovel fish and paddle fish; the flesh is occasionally eaten, but is rather tough; the singularly shaped snout is used to shovel up the mud in search of food. The genus platirostra (Les.) is probably only the adult of polyodon, the principal difference being the absence of teeth. STURLESON. See SNORRO STURLESON. STURM, JOHANN, a German philologist, born at Schleiden, now in Rhenish Prussia, Oct. 1, 1507, died in Strasbourg, March 3, 1589. He studied at Liége in the college of St. Jerome, and in 1524 went to Louvain, where he spent 5 years, and, in partnership with Rudiger Rescius, established a press, and printed some Greek works. In 1529 he went to Paris, and there read public lectures on Greek and Latin writers and on logic; and thence in 1537 to Strasbourg to become rector of its newly established gymnasium, which, under his administration for 45 years, acquired great celebrity, and in 1566 was converted into a university. The system of education introduced by him, aiming chiefly at thorough Latin scholarship, exerted great influence throughout Germany, and was the model of that adopted by the Jesuits. He was several times employed by government in a diplomatic capacity. He was a Lutheran, but liberal to all who suffered for religious opinions, and was by the persecution of stricter sectarians finally driven from the head of his school. His works are very numerous, and are principally devoted to the elucidation of classic authors His work on a system of education, De Literarum Ludis recte aperiendis Liber (4to., Strasbourg, 1538), has been several times reprinted.

STUTTGART, a town of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Würtemberg, situated on the river Nesen, a tributary of the Neckar, 38 m. E. S. E. from Carlsruhe and 97 m. S. E. from Frankfort; pop. in 1858, 51,655. It stands in a very beautiful valley surrounded by vine-clad hills, with well wooded mountains in the distance. The town is encircled by a wall and ditch, is entered by 8 gates, and consists of two parts, the ancient and modern, with two suburbs. In the chief square is a fine old Gothic church with a high tower, and many ancient sculptures and monuments of the princes of Würtemberg. The royal palace, begun in 1746 and finished in 1806, is a large building of freestone splendidly decorated and furnished in the interior; and the old palace, completed in 1570, resembles a feudal castle, and is now occupied by officials occupied_by_officials connected with the government. In the same square is a monument to Schiller by Thorwaldsen. The hospital church is a Gothic building, finely decorated in the interior, and contains the grave of Reuchlin. The town hall was built in the 15th century. The other public

buildings and institutions of importance are the museum of natural history; a library of 200,000 volumes and 3,220 MSS.; a cabinet of medals containing about 17,000 specimens; a museum of the fine arts, with many valuable statues and pictures; a bazaar, and a theatre. Stuttgart has a gymnasium, military academy, polytechnic school, school of art, numerous schools, hospitals, asylums, and other charitable institutions, and extensive barracks and government offices. The manufactures include woollen, silk, linen, and cotton goods, jewelry, musical and philosophical instruments, leather, and tin ware. The book trade is extensively carried on, and connected with it are numerous paper mills, type founderies, lithographic establishments, and printing offices. The town has railway communication with all the principal places of Europe, and the Neckar is navigable. A considerable trade is carried on in different manufactured articles, and bark. In the vicinity are numerous parks and gardens, where the public are admitted, including Rosenstein, the summer palace of the king; and Kannstadt, about 3 miles distant, is resorted to by the citizens and visitors as a favorite watering place.-Stuttgart is a very ancient town, but the date of its foundation is not known. It suffered severely during the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. Though repeatedly occupied by both sides during the wars of Napoleon, it escaped with little loss.

STUYVESANT, PETRUS, the last Dutch director-general of New Netherlands (New York), born in Holland in 1602, died in New York in Aug. 1682. He served in the war in the West Indies, became director of the colony of Curaçoa, and, having lost a leg in an unsuccessful attack on the Portuguese island of St. Martin, returned to Holland in 1644. In 1645 he was appointed by the Dutch West India company director-general of New Netherlands, succeeding William Kieft, whose conduct had involved the settlers in a bloody war with the Indians, and created general disorder in the colony. He did not arrive till May, 1647, when he commenced a vigorous and often arbitrary administration, conciliating the savages and restoring order in every department. In 1650 he arranged at Hartford with the New England commissioners a line of partition between the Dutch and English territories, which had previously been undefined and a cause of frequent disputes. He was also involved in trouble with the Swedes on the south. In 1651 the Dutch built Fort Casimir on the Delaware, which was captured by Rising, the governor of New Sweden, in 1654. To revenge this wrong, Stuyvesant in 1655, with 7 vessels and between 600 and 700 men, sailed into the Delaware, and made a conquest of the whole settlement. Ten years of peace followed, disturbed only by the growing jealousy of the English, and by the civil discontents which the arbitrary character of Stuyvesant's administration tended somewhat to inspire. In 1653 a convention of the people,

and Trieste railway, which crosses the Semmering mountains.-Under the Romans the eastern part of Styria belonged to the province of Pannonia, and the western to Noricum. Christianity was introduced in the 4th century, but the northern barbarians afterward overran the province. Styria was annexed to Austria in 1192, was subsequently attached to Bohemia, and wrested from King Ottocar II. by Rudolph I. of Hapsburg, a possession of which house it has since remained.

STYX (connected with Gr. σruyew, to hate, abhor), in Greek mythology, the chief river of the lower world, around which it flows 7 times. The name was said to be derived from the nymph Styx, the daughter of Oceanus, who, when Jupiter prepared to wrest the power from the hands of Saturn and the Titans, was the first of the immortals to answer to his call, coming with her 4 sons to his assistance. For her readiness he made her children his constant attendants, and upon her he conferred the distinction of being the oath-sanctioner of the gods. When a god was about to take the oath, a cup of water from this stream was brought him by Iris, and while pouring out this he took the oath. In the Hesiodic theogony Styx is called the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the mother of Zelos (zeal), Nike (victory), Bia (strength), and Cratos (power).

SUABIA. See SWABIA.

SUAREZ, FRANCISCO, a Spanish scholastic theologian, born in Granada in 1548, died in Lisbon in 1617. He early entered the order of the Jesuits, was in succession professor at the universities of Alcala, Salamanca, Rome, and Coimbra, and one of the most prolific theological writers of his age. Benedict XIV. and Bossuet accounted him among the most learned theologians of their church, and Grotius called him a profound theologian and philosopher, with whom but few could be compared. His work, Defensio Fidei adversus Anglicana Sectæ Errores, was ordered by the parliament of Paris to be burned by the public executioner, because it claimed for the pope a coercive power over kings. The complete works of Suarez were published at Lyons, Mentz, and Venice, in 23 vols. fol., the last named edition in 1748, and a new edition is now (1862) in course of publication at Paris. The Jesuit Noël published extracts from them in 2 vols. fol. (Geneva, 1732). A life of Suarez was written by Deschamps (Perpignan, 1671). SUBJECTIVE.

JECTIVE.

See OBJECTIVE AND SUB

SUBLIMATION, a process of distillation in which the vapors condense in a solid form. It takes place naturally in volcanic fissures and craters, and the products, often of a sulphurous character, are deposited upon the walls. Deposits thus formed are termed sublimates. A great variety of mineral substances are subject to vaporize by heat and become solid again on cooling; and the number of such increases with the increased degree of heat which

we can apply. Some vegetable substances also possess the same property, as camphor, benzoic acid, &c. Sublimation is much employed in the arts and manufactures as a means of separating volatile from fixed bodies, usually for obtaining the former in a purer state. The vapor is sometimes chemically changed by contact with the oxygen of the air, and the sublimate is then of a different composition from the original body, as when oxide of zinc is produced by subjecting the metal or its ores to heat exposed to the air.

SUBLIME PORTE (Fr., lofty or magnificent gate), the title officially given to the Ottoman government, and also applied to the edifice in which state affairs are transacted. Orkhan (1326-'57), the first Turkish sultan who adopted the title padishah, erected a magnificent palace with an imposing entrance, on which he bestowed the name of "Sublime Porte," which from that time to the present has been applied to the monarch and government ruling there. This use of the term also had its origin partly perhaps in the oriental custom of transacting public business at the gate of the city or palace. SUBMERGED FORESTS. See FORESTS, SUBMERGED.

SUBPŒNA, a judicial process directed to a witness commanding him to appear at the court, to testify what he knows in the case therein described, pending in the court, under a certain penalty (sub pœna) mentioned in the process. If the court wishes to examine any books or papers which are in possession of the witness, a clause is inserted in the writ bidding him to bring them with him; and the subpoena is thence called a subpana duces tecum. A subpœna ought always to be served at a reasonable time before the trial, in order that the witness who is summoned thereby may have time to arrange his affairs in contemplation of his absence, and may have convenient time to reach the court. The statutes generally regulate the matter, and usually require that for every certain number of miles distance, one day shall be added in estimating the time of service. The manner of service is also often prescribed by American statutes. In New York, for example, the mode of service is to show the subpoena to the party; to deliver to him a copy of the process, or a ticket containing the substance of it; and to pay or tender to him the amount allowed by law for travelling to and returning from the place at which he is required to attend, and his fees for one day's attendance. These fees for travel and daily attendance are also matter of express statutory provisions, and they differ in the different states. The subpoena ought to be served upon the witness personally, for otherwise he cannot be proceeded against as for a contempt if he neglects to appear. Service may be made by any person, and is proved generally by affidavit, or, if it be made by a sheriff or his officer, by a simple return or certificate of service. When a witness has been duly summoned, and his fees have been paid or