Treves was invaded by the French army, Spurzheim with the other students fled to Vienna, where be became acquainted with Dr. Gall, and soon after was employed as his assistant, making dissections for him. From 1805 to 1808 Spurzheim and Gall visited the principal cities of Europe, lecturing and demonstrating their views by dissections of the brain. In 1808 they presented a joint memoir to the French institute on the anatomy of the brain, explaining their discoveries; and the committee to whom it was referred reported on the whole favorably. The two phrenologists then commenced the preparation of their great work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in general, and of the Brain in particular," of which Spurzheim contributed to the first two volumes. In 1813 they separated, and thenceforward prosecuted their labors independently of each other. Spurzheim, after taking his medical degree at Vienna, went to England, and delivered his first course of lectures in London, and about the same time published "Physiognomy in connection with Phrenology," and "Observations on Insanity." These works were violently attacked by Dr. John Gordon in the "Edinburgh Review," and Dr. Spurzheim at once visited Edinburgh, and in the presence of more than 500 medical students, the pupils of Dr. Gordon, demonstrated the fibrous character of the brain, which the latter had denied. He went to Paris in 1817, and lectured for several years, publishing also works on phrenology, insanity, and education. His lectures being prohibited in 1825, he went again to England, in 1831 returned to Paris, and in the summer of 1832 visited the United States. Having delivered several lectures in Boston, he was seized with a fatal fever from over exertion about 2 months after his arrival. Dr. Spurzheim's principal works, beside those already mentioned, are: Anatomy of the Brain" (8vo., London and Boston, 1831-'2); "Phrenology, or Doctrine of the Mind" (8vo., London and New York); "Sketch of the Natural Laws of Man" (London and Boston).

SPY, as defined by Bouvier, "one who goes into a place for the purpose of ascertaining the best way of doing an injury there. The term is mostly applied to an enemy who comes into the camp for the purpose of ascertaining its situation in order to make an attack upon it." The punishment inflicted on a detected spy is death. In all time it has been an acknowledged right of nations at war with each other to avail themselves of the service of spies or secret emissaries in carrying on their hostile operations. Before entering Canaan the Hebrew lawgiver twice sent spies to examine the land and the condition of the people. Grotius and Vattel lay down numerous principles in regard to their employment. It is admitted by all writers on international law that there is something revolting to the mind of an honorable man in performing the service of a spy, and therefore a commander has not a right to

"He

compel one of his soldiers or officers to undertake it. He may urge him to it by pecuniary or other motives, but if he still refuses he may not compel him. The spy, in his assumed character, is justified in obtaining what information he can concerning the condition and purposes of the enemy, but it is wrong for him to resort to assassination or poisoning. may weaken the enemy," says Vattel, "by all possible means which do not affect the common safety of human society." Writers on international law also hold that a commander is justifiable in tempting or soliciting, by bribes or otherwise, an enemy's subjects to betray him, or act as spies, though they admit that such a course is hardly compatible with strict rectitude. They insist, however, that it is perfectly right to accept the offers of a traitor. The commander does not seduce him, and it is right that he should take advantage of his crime, though he may detest him for committing it.In the history of the border wars in the western states and territories of North America, this word is frequently used to denote a species of scouts or rangers, usually backwoodsmen or hunters, who marched in the advance or on the flanks of an army, to act as guides, and to watch, as the name implies, the motions of the enemy

especially to seek and detect the ambuscades of the Indians. They were not spies in the odious military sense of that term. The service was honorable, and was equivalent to that of light troops in regular armies. This use of the word is peculiar to American history.

SQUADRON, in military science, a body of cavalry comprising 2 companies or troops, and averaging from 150 to 200 men. A detachment of ships of war employed on a particular expedition is also called a squadron.

SQUARE (Lat. quadratum), in geometry, a figure formed of 4 equal sides meeting each other at right angles. The term appears to have been originally applied to the corners of figures alone, and in the oldest English work on geometry (Recorde's "Ground of Arts"), the word quadrate (four-sided) is added to it when it is used to designate a square figure. It is common, even at the present time, to find it used in a similar sense, as when applied to the tool called the carpenter's T square, a rule of two limbs united at a right angle, and used for drawing right angles. The word is applied also to angles, though not to right angles, in calling a triangular file 3-square.-Square measure presents the superficial areas of surfaces in square units, as inches, feet, miles, &c.-In arithmetic, the square is a number consisting of another number multiplied by itself; and this use of the word evidently has reference to the geometrical figure, the area of which is equal to the number of units forming one of its sides multiplied by itself. The number thus multiplied is called the square root, and the method of discovering it in algebraic and arithmetical formulas is known as the extraction of the square root.

talists, and special guaranties for the road from the English and French governments. As an incident in these negotiations, he drew up the treaty between Great Britain and Honduras for the retrocession of the Bay islands, the principles of which, adopted by the former, opened the way for the adjustment of all her disputes with the Central American states. The final survey of the proposed railway was also conducted under his direction. Beside those above mentioned, Mr. Squier has published the following works, most of which have been translated into German, French, or Spanish: "Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Ancient Monuments, and proposed Interoceanic Canal" (2 vols. 8vo., New York and London, 1852); "The Serpent Symbol, or Worship of the Reciprocal Principles of Nature in America" (8vo., New York, 1852); "Notes on Central America," &c. (1854); “Waikna, or Adventures on the Mosquito Shore," under the nom de plume of Samuel A. Bard (12mo., 1855); Question Anglo-Américaine, &c. (8vo., Paris, 1856); "The States of Central America," &c. (Svo., New York, 1857); “Report of the Survey of the Honduras Interoceanic Railway" (4to., London, 1859); "Translation, with Notes, of the Letter of Don Diego de Palacio (1571) to the Crown of Spain on the Provinces of Guatemala, San Salvador, &c." (New York, 1860); Monograph of Authors who have written on the Aboriginal Languages of Central America" (1861); and "Tropical Fibres and their Economic Extraction" (1861). He has also contributed numerous articles to this cyclopædia and the "Encyclopædia Britannica," to the "Transactions" of the American ethnological society and of numerous scientific societies of Europe, and to many American and European periodicals and public journals.

SQUILL, the bulb of plants of the genus scilla or squilla, of which the S. maritima, or sea onion, furnishes the medicine called squill. The plant is perennial, and grows on the coast of the Mediterranean. The bulb is pear-shaped, from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, and consists of fleshy scales, closely laid over each other, and covered by thin, dry, external scales, which are sometimes red and sometimes white. The juice is viscid and very acrid, but its acrimony partially disappears, without loss of medicinal power, when the bulb is dried. For this purpose it is cut into thin slices, and exposed to artificial or solar heat. It is exported in oblong pieces of a white or dull yellowish white color, possessing a feeble odor, and bitter, nauseous, and acrid taste. Analyzed by Tilloy of Dijon, it was found to contain a very acrid and poisonous resinoid substance; a very bitter principle, previously recognized by Vogel and called scillitin; a fatty matter; citrate of lime; and mucilage and sugar. About of a grain of the first named substance was found sufficient to kill a dog.-Squill yields its medicinal properties to water, alcohol, and vinegar, and is also used in substance in the form of pill. Its

effects are expectorant, diuretic, and, in large doses, emetic and purgative. It is used in combination with tartar emetic or ipecacuanha to stimulate the vessels of the lungs; and in dropsical diseases it is much employed to increase the secretory action of the kidneys.

SQUILL (squilla, Fabr.), a genus of crustaceans of the division stomapoda, so called from having the feet placed around the mouth. The body is elongated and generally slender, the head distinct from the thorax, the carapace leaving uncovered 4 of the thoracic rings, and the abdomen terminating in a wide caudal fin of several plates adapted for swimming. The antennæ of the 1st segment of the body are long, ending in 3 many-jointed filaments, cannot be bent under the head, and are inserted below the eyes near the median line; the antennæ of the 2d segment are shorter, more external, having at the base a large ciliated plate, and terminate in a single many-jointed filament; the eyes are at the end of movable appendages. The mouth is toward the posterior 3d of the carapace, and has an upper and under lip, a pair of mandibles, and 2 pairs of jaw feet arranged around it; the 3d pair of feet are prehensile, strong, bent back on themselves, serrated and spined, and used very much like the 1st pair of feet in the soothsayer (mantis); the next 3 pairs are directed forward, applied against the buccal apparatus, and inserted close together, with a wide, rounded, ciliated plate at the end; the last 3 thoracic limbs are slender, with styliform process and ciliated, the seg ments to which they are attached resembling those of the abdomen. Most of the rings of the body are complete, very nearly equal, and movable on each other; the carapace is nearly quadrilateral, longitudinally divided by 2 more or less distinct grooves; the 1st 5 abdominal rings have large false feet, to the posterior part of the base of which are attached the respiratory organs in the shape of floating, ramified, and fringed gills, which are kept constantly in motion. The heart has the form of a long vessel, a little dilated anteriorly, extending almost the length of the abdomen and thorax, sending off lateral branches to each ring; the venous sinuses in which the blood is collected before going to the gills are very large; the stomach advances far into the head. There are many species, all marine, most abundant in the tropics, but some coming as far N. as the English channel; they are usually met with far from shore and in deep water; they swim rapidly, striking the water with their powerful tail they are voracious and carnivorous. The best known species is the S. mantis (Fabr.), 6 or 7 inches long, of a pale yellowish gray color, found in the Mediterranean; the carapace is widened and elongated posteriorly, with the anterior angles spiny; the prehensile feet have 6 teeth; the abdomen has 8 longitudinal rows of crests above; the caudal plates are spiny.

SQUINTING (Lat. strabismus), a deformity resulting from a want of parallelism between

the visual axes of the eyes. Except in cases where it is caused by paralysis, spasmodic or hydropical affections, or irritation of the brain, it is not a disease, and is accompanied with no pain or lack of visual power. Ophthalmic surgeons notice 3 degrees of squinting: 1, where there is but a slight convergence or divergence from the normal axis, such as is ordinarily called a "cast of the eye;" 2, where the inclination is strongly marked, but less than half the cornea is thrown under the eyelid or within the orbit, which is the most frequent variety; 3, where the cornea is nearly or quite thrown under the eyelid or within the orbit, common among those who are born blind, but rare in the case of those who can see. The surgeons also distinguish it according to the departure from the normal axis; as convergent, where the pupil is drawn toward the nose; divergent, where it is drawn toward the outer corner of the eye; ascendent, where it is drawn upward; and descendent, where it is drawn downward. Of these, the convergent form is by far the most frequent, and next in order the divergent and ascendent. The descendent is the rarest of all. Squinting may also be double or single as one or both eyes are affected; it may be congenital, i. e., existing from birth, or accidental, occurring from accident or improper treatment of the eye; the former is rare. It may be also continuous, or rarely intermittent. The cause of ordinary strabismus or squinting is the lack of equal power in the muscles which move the eye. (See EYE.)—The treatment prior to 1839 consisted in attempting by various methods to strengthen the weaker muscles, bandaging the normal eye, and compelling the constant use of the other; or by the use of goggles, spectacles, &c., in which all except the centre was opaque. In 1838 Stromeyer described the operation of dividing one of the recti muscles, but without having tried it on the living subject. In 1839 Dieffenbach, an eminent surgeon of Berlin, performed it successfully, and was followed by many English and French surgeons. The operation has now become very common, though the best surgeons admit that there are 3 classes of cases in which it should not be performed, viz. those in which the position of the eye is fixed, those which result from the paralysis of the antagonist muscle, and those occurring in infants before dentition. The operation is not difficult nor particularly dangerous, and in about of the cases proves partially or entirely successful. There are two methods of performing it, the ordinary or that of Dieffenbach, where the conjunctiva is divided and the muscle to be severed is laid bare, and the subconjunctival method, where the conjunctiva is only punctured by the instrument which divides the muscle beneath it. The former is generally preferred. The operation was introduced in the United States in 1840 by Dr. Detmold.

SQUIRE. See ESQUIRE.

SQUIRREL, the popular name of the rodents of the family sciurida, which is very numerous

in species, and widely spread over the world, except in Australia. These well known, active, and familiar animals are characterized by a broad head, the frontal bone being dilated into a post-orbital process; the muzzle wide, from the development of the frontal and nasal bones; eyes large and prominent, ears moderate, and whiskers long; the hind feet 5-toed, the fore feet 4-toed, with a wartlike thumb, all the fingers and toes with compressed and curved claws; the fur is generally soft, especially in the northern species, and the tail is long, hairy, expanded laterally in the arboreal genera, and shorter and bushy in the terrestrial, and in both carried gracefully over the back; the upper lip is cleft, the cæcum large, clavicles perfect, enabling them to use the fore limbs to convey food to the mouth, and the tibia and fibula distinct; some have a membrane extended between the fore and hind limbs, as has been noticed under FLYING SQUIRREL. The incisors are 2, smooth in front, brown or orange, the lower compressed and sharp; molars, rooted, tuberculate, with projecting transverse striæ enamelled continuously, the anterior upper one the smallest and sometimes deciduous. The food is chiefly vegetable, though some American species are known to suck eggs and destroy young birds. The family is very abundant in North America, nearly of all the species being found here; the prairie dogs and prairie squirrels are peculiar to this continent, as well as most of the flying squirrels. (See FLYING SQUIRREL, PRAIRIE DOG, and PRAIRIE SQUIRREL.)—The genus sciurus (Linn.) is the type of those of the family which live in trees; the species of the United States are hard to determine from the tendency to variation in color (red, gray, and black being the predominating tints), and the diminution in size in the southern states. Mr. Baird states it as a general rule that, when a squirrel has the fur of the throat or belly annulated, it is a variety of some species which normally has the under parts uniformly white or reddish to the roots, or the latter plumbeous. The bones of the red-bellied squirrels are generally red, and of the white-bellied white. The largest of the North American species is the fox squirrel of the southern states (S. vulpinus, Gmel.), about 24 feet long, of which the tail is 15 inches; the head is rather slender and pointed, and the tail rather cylindrical; the upper molars are permanently 4. The color varies from a gray above and white below, through various shades of rusty, to uniform shining black; the fur is coarse and harsh, and the ears short; the ears and nose are white in all its varieties. It is found from North Carolina through the S. Atlantic and gulf states to Brazos river in Texas. The gray variety is the S. capistratus (Bosc), and the black the S. niger (Linn.) and the black squirrel of Catesby. It prefers elevated and open pine ridges where there are occasional oak, hickory, and nut trees; the nest for